1 ' ; '-',;, . / ■■■• * <■■-:, 



THE 



GEEMANIA AMD A&RICOLA 



"t A C I T TJ S, 



ENGLISH NOTES, CRITICAL AND EXPLANATORY, FROM THE 

BEST AND LATEST AUTHORITIES ; THE REMARKS OF 

B5TTICHER ON THE STYLE OF TACITUS; AND 

A COPIOUS GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



CHARLES "NTHON, LED., 

PROFESSOR OF THE GREEK AND LATIN LANGUAGES IN COLUMBIA COLLEGE, 
NEW YORK, AND RECTOR OF THE GRAMMAR-SCHOOL. 



NEW YORK: 
HARPER & BROTHERS, PUBLISHERS, 

82 CLIFF STREET. 

184 7. 






Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year one thousand 
eight hundred and forty-seven, by 

Harper & Brothers, 

in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the Southern District 
of New York. 



TO 



HENRY DRISLEE, A.M., 

ADJUNCT PROFESSOR OF THE GREEK AND LATIN LANGUAGES IN COLUMBIA 

COLLEGE, 



SHus sarorit in 23etrfcatetr, 

AS A MEMORIAL OF LONG AND UNINTERRUPTED FRIENDSHIP, 
AND A SINCERE TESTIMONIAL 

OF RESPECT 

FOR ABILITIES OF A HIGH ORDER, UNITED TO ACCURATE, 
EXTENSIVE, AND UNTIRING SCHOLARSHIP. 



CONTENTS. 



Pago 

Preface vii 

Life and Writings of Tacitus xi 

Chronological Table xvii 

Remarks on the Style of Tacitus xxi 

The Germania 1 

The Agricola .25 

Notes on the Germania 55 

Notes on the Agricola 132 

Index to Remarks on the Style of Tacitus 213 

Geographical Index 217 

Stemma of the Family of Augustus 249 



PREFACE. 



The basis of the present work is the English edition 
of Dr. Smith, published in 1840, the notes to which 
are principally selected from the commentaries of 
Ruperti, Passow, and Walch. It has been the object 
of the American editor to render these notes still more 
useful by additional selections from the works of 
other scholars, and by a more frequent translation of 
difficult or obscure passages. One great defect in the 
English edition is the omission of almost all special 
reference to the authorities whence the notes have 
been obtained. The American editor has endeavor- 
ed to supply this deficiency, as far as lay in his power, 
more particularly in the commentary on the Germa- 
nia. The notes on the Agricola, in the English edi- 
tion, are pretty much one continuous selection from 
the excellent commentary of Walch, to which, how- 
ever, the American editor has added much valuable 
information obtained from the same source, as well 
as from other quarters. 

The result, therefore, is, that the student is here 
presented with the richest and most extensive com- 
mentary on the Germania and Agricola that has 
ever appeared in the English language. This re- 
mark is not made in any feeling of arrogance. The 
American editor claims little for himself beyond the 
mere selection of materials, and therefore feels per- 



Vlll PREFACE. 



fectly at liberty to express his opinion of the value 
of those materials. The notes of Walch, in particu- 
lar, on the Agricola, which consist, in the original, 
of more than three hundred closely printed octavo 
pages, form undoubtedly, as has been remarked by 
the English editor, " one of the most valuable com- 
mentaries ever published upon any classical author." 

The " Remarks on the Style of Tacitus," appended 
to the English edition, and reprinted in this, are trans- 
lated from a work of Botticher, " De vita, scriptis, ac 
stilo Taciti" Berlin, 1834, and which, to borrow again 
the language of Dr. Smith, "is well known to be a 
very excellent introduction to the study of the style 
and writings of Tacitus." The Geographical Index 
is confined, as will be perceived, to the Germania, and 
enters somewhat fully into the subsequent movements 
of the German tribes. The Geography of Britain, 
being of minor importance, has been explained at 
once in the notes to the Agricola. The materials for 
the Index have been obtained in a great measure from 
the commentary in the English edition, and the pres- 
ent work will be found to have gained in this way a 
decided advantage by the separation of the geograph- 
ical from the explanatory matter. It is a great, but 
very common mistake, to suppose that the ancient 
Geography of Germany and Britain, especially the 
former, requires at the present day but little elucida- 
tion. The student needs only to turn over a few 
pages of Mannert to perceive how utterly erroneous 
is such an opinion. 

It remains but to give a list of the different editions 
of Tacitus, as well as of the other works from which 
aid has been obtained for the present volume. 



PREFACE. IX 

1. Taciti Opera, ed. Brotier, Glasg., 1796, 4 vols., 4to. 

2. Taciti Opera, ex recensione Eniesti, ed. Oberlin, Oxon., 1813, 

4 vols., 8vo. 

3. Taciti Opera, ed. Walther, Hal. Sax., 1831, seqq., 4 vols., 8vo. 

4. Taciti Opera, ed. Imm. Bekker, Lips., 1831, 2 vols., 8vo. 

5. Taciti Opera, ed. Exter, Bipont., 4 vols., 8vo. 

6. Taciti Opera, ed. Naudet, Pans, 1820, 5 vols., 8vo. (Lemaire's 

Collect.) 

7. Taciti Opera, ed. Valpy (In Us. Delpli.), Lond., 8 vols., 8vo. 



8. Phil. Cluveri Germanise Antiquae lib. iii., Lugd. Bat., ap. Elz., 

1616, fol. 

9. Taciti Germania, vollstandig erlautert, von Diltliey, Bratm- 

schw., 1823, 8vo. 

10. Taciti Germania, ed. Gerlach, Basil., 1835, 8vo. 

11. Taciti Germania, ed. Weishanpt, Solod., 1844, 8vo. 

12. La Germanie de Tacite, par Panckoucke, Paris, 1824, 8vo. 

13. Tacitus's Agrikola, ed. Walch, Berlin, 1828, 8vo. 

14. Taciti Agricola, ed. Dronke, Fuldae, 1834, 8vo. 

15. Taciti Agricola, ed. Becker, Hamburg, 1826, 8vo. 

16. Germany and Agricola of Tacitus, ed. Barker, Lond., 1824. 

17. Tacitus's Germany, Agricola, &c, ed. Smith, Lond., 1840. 



18. Des C. C. Tacitus sammtliche Werke ubersetzt von Botticher, 

Berlin, 1834, 2 vols., 8vo. 

19. Lexicon Taciteum, scripsit Guil. Botticher, Berolini, 1830, 8vo. 

20. Tacite, traduit par Dureau de Lamalle, ed. Noel, Paris, 1828, 

6 vols., 8vo. 

21. La Vie d' Agricola, et des Moeurs des Gerrnains, par M. l'Abbe 

de la Bleterie, Paris, 1788, 12mo. 

22. Germany and Agricola of Tacitus, by John Aikin, M.D., 4th 

ed., Oxford, 1823, 12mo. 

23. Works of Tacitus, by Murphy, N. Y., 1822, 6 vols., 8vo. 



24. Mannert, Geschichte der alten Deutschen, &c, Stuttg., 1829, 

8vo. 

25. Adelung, aelteste Geschichte der Deutschen, Leipz., 1806, 8vo. 

26. Menzel, Geschichte der Deutschen, Stuttg., 1837, 4to. 

27. Luden, Geschichte der Deutschen, Gotha, 1825, 2 vols., 8vo. 

28. Mannert, Geographie der Griechen und Romer (vol. ii. and iii.). 

29. Schirlitz, Handbuch der alten Geographie, Halle, 1837, 8vo. 



: PREFACE. 

30. Krase, Archiv. fur alte Geographic, &c., Breslau, 1821, seqq., 

12mo. 

31. Kruse, Deutsche Alterthiimer, Halle, 1824, seqq., 12mo. 

32. Klemm, Germanisclie Alterthumskunde, Dresden, 1836, 8vo. 

33. Reichard, Sammlung kleiner Schriften, &c., Guns, 1836, 8vo. 

34. Bohmens heidnische Opferplatze, Graber, &c, Prag., 1836, 8vo. 

35. Barth, iiber die Druiden der Kelten, Erlangen., 1826, 8vo. 

36. Graff, Althochdeutscher Sprachschatz, &c, Berlin, 1834-8, 4 

vols., 4to. 

37. Du Cange, Glossarium media? et infimse Latinitatis, ed. Hen- 

schel, Paris, 1840, seqq., 4to. 



It is the intention of the editor to publish at some 
future day select portions of the "Annals" and "His- 
tories," and also the " Dialogue on the Causes of the 
Decline of Eloquence." In the mean time, he hopes 
that the present volume may not be unsuccessful in 
enabling the student to cultivate an acquaintance 
with a part of the writings of Tacitus. 

Columbia College, N. Y., Aug. 18th, 1847. 



LIFE AND WRITINGS OF TACITUS.* 



" Caius Cornelius Tacitus was probably born in the reign of 
Nero, but neither the place of his birth, nor the exact date, is known, 
nor is any thing ascertained of his parentage. There is no reason for 
supposing that he belonged to the illustrious patrician gens of the 
Cornelii, nor any evidence of his having been born at Interamna, in 
Umbria (the modern Terni), as is sometimes stated. The few facts 
of his life are chiefly collected from his own works, and from the 
letters of his friend, the younger Pliny. Tacitus was about the same 
age as Pliny, but the elder of the two. Pliny was born about A.D. 
61, in the reign of Nero, which commenced A.D. 54. A passage of 
the elder Pliny (H. N., vii., 16) speaks of a son of Cornelius Tacitus, 
the procurator of the emperor in Belgic Gaul. Lipsius concludes that 
this Cornelius Tacitus was the historian; but as Pliny died in A.D. 
79, it seems hardly probable that the passage can apply to him. It 
has been conjectured that the procurator was the father of the historian. 

" Tacitus states that he owed his first promotion to Vespasian, and 
that he was indebted for other favors to his successors, Titus and 
Domitian (Hist., i., 1). In the year A.D. 77, C. Julius Agricola, then 
consul, betrothed to him his daughter ; and the marriage took place 
after Agricola's consulship. Tacitus does not state what places he 
filled under Vespasian and Titus, but in the reign of Domitian he in- 
forms us that he assisted as one of the Quindecimviri, at the celebra- 
tion of the Ludi Sa>culares, which event took place in the fourteenth 
consulship of Domitian (A.D. 88). At that time he was also prsetor 
(Ann., xi., 11). He was not at Rome when his father-in-law, Agricola, 
died there (A.D. 93), in the reign of Domitian; but it is too much to 
affirm, as some have done, that he was an exile during the time of 
this emperor. It has already been shown that he was at Rome in 
A.D. 88. A passage in his Life of Agricola (c. 45) rather leads to 
the inference that he was at Rome during many of the atrocities 
which Domitian perpetrated after the death of Agricola, though he 
had been absent from Rome for four years prior to Agricola's death. 
On the decease of T. Virginius Rufus, in the reign of Nerva (A.D. 97), 

* Fenny Cyclopaedia, vol, xxiii., p. 504, seqq. 



Xll LIFE AND WRITINGS OF TACITUS. 

he was appointed Consul Suffectus, and Pliny enumerates it as the 
crowning event to the good fortune of Virginius, that his panegyric 
was pronounced by the Consul Cornelius Tacitus, the most eloquent 
of speakers. 

" Tacitus is recorded by his friend Pliny as one of the most eloquent 
orators of his age. He had already attained to some distinction as 
an advocate when Pliny was commencing his career. In the reign 
of Nerva, Pliny and Tacitus were appointed by the senate (A.D. 99) 
to conduct the prosecution of Marius Priscus, who had been proconsul 
of Africa, and was charged with various flagrant crimes. On this 
occasion Tacitus replied to Salvius Liberalis, who had spoken in de- 
fence of Priscus. His reply, says Pliny, was most eloquent, and 
marked by that dignity which characterized his style of speaking. 
(Plin., Ep.,il, 11.) 

" The contemporaries of Tacitus were Quintilian, the two Plinies, 
Julius Florus, Maternus, M. Aper, and Vipsanius Messala. He was 
on terms of the greatest intimacy with the younger Pliny, in whose 
extant collection of letters there are eleven epistles from Pliny to 
Tacitus. In one of these letters (vi., 16) Pliny describes the circum- 
stance of the death of his uncle, Pliny the elder, and the letter was 
purposely written to supply Tacitus with facts for his historical works. 
It is not known when Tacitus died, nor whether he left any children. 
The Emperor Tacitus claimed the honor of being descended from him, 
but we have no means of judging of the accuracy of the emperor's 
pedigree ; and Sidonius Apollinaris (Ep., lib. iv., ad Polemium) men- 
tions the historian Tacitus among the ancestors of Polemius, a prefect 
of Gaul in the fifth century of our era. 

"The extant works of Tacitus are the ' Life of Agricola,' 'the 
Treatise on the Germans/ ' Histories,' 'Annals,' and the ' Dialogue on 
Orators; or, the Causes of the Decline of Eloquence.' None of his 
Orations are preserved. 

" The ' Life of Agricola' is one of the earliest works of Tacitus, and 
must have been written after the death of Domitian (A.D. 96). The 
Procemium, or Introduction to it, was written in the reign of Trajan, 
and the whole work probably belongs to the first or second year of 
that emperor's reign. As a specimen of biography, it is much and 
justly admired. Like all the extant works of Tacitus, it is unencum- 
bered with minute irrelevant matter. The life and portrait of Agricola 
are sketched in a bold and vigorous style, corresponding to the dig- 
nity of the subject. The biographer was the friend and son-in-law of 
Agricola, whom he loved and revered, but he impresses his reader 
with a profound conviction of the moral greatness of Agricola, his 
courage, and his prudence, without ever becoming his panegyrist. 



LIFE AND WRITINGS OF TACITUS. Xlll 

The ' Life of Agricola' was not contained in the earliest editions of 
Tacitus. 

"The ' Germany' of Tacitus has been the subject of some discussion 
as to its historical value. The author does not inform us whence he 
drew his materials for the description of the usages of these barbari- 
ans, many of whom could only be known by hearsay even to the 
Roman traders and adventurers on the frontiers of the empire. The 
work contains numerous minute and precise details, for which it must 
be assumed that the writer had at least the evidence of persons con- 
versant with the German tribes on the frontiers ; and there is nothing 
in the description of Tacitus which is substantially at variance with 
what we know of the early Germans from other sources. The sound- 
est conclusion is, that the picture of the Germans is in the main cor- 
rect; otherwise we must assume it to be either a mere fiction, or a 
rhetorical essay founded on a few generally known facts ; but neither 
of these assumptions will satisfy a careful reader. 

44 The ' Histories,' which were written before the ' Annals,' and 
after the death of Nerva, comprehended the period from the accession 
of Galba to the death of Domitian ; to which it was the author's in- 
tention to add the reigns of Nerva and Trajan (Hist., i., 1). There 
are only extant the first four books and a part of the fifth, and these 
comprehend little more than the events of one year, from which we 
may conclude that the whole work must have consisted of many 
books. Unfortunately, the fifth book contains only the commence- 
ment of the siege of Jerusalem by Titus. 

" The ' Annals' comprehended the history of Rome from the death 
of Augustus to the death of Nero, a period of fifty-two years, which 
ended with the extinction of the Julian house in Nero. A part of the 
fifth book of the i Annals' is lost ; the seventh, eighth, ninth, tenth, 
the beginning of the eleventh, and the end of the sixteenth and last 
book, are also lost. These last portions comprehended the whole reign 
of Caligula, the first years of Claudius, and the last two years of Nero's 
reign. It is said that the preservation of the historical works of 
Tacitus is due to the Emperor Tacitus (Vopisc, Tacit., 10), who 
caused them to be transcribed ten times a year, and copies to be 
placed in the libraries. But the works of Tacitus, and more particu- 
larly the ' Annals,' were neglected during the decline of the empire, 
and few copies of them were preserved. The first five books of the 
1 Annals' were not found till the beginning of the sixteenth century, 
when they were discovered in the Abbey of Corvey, in Westphalia, 
and published at Rome, in 1515, by Philip Bervaldus. 

44 The Dialogue on the Decline of Eloquence may have been writ- 
ten in the reign of Vespasian : it is at least probable that it is an early 



XIV LIFE AND WRITINGS OF TACITUS. 

work of Tacitus. It has been sometimes doubted if it is by Tacitus, 
but the style is in favor of the common opinion, though it presents in 
many respects a marked contrast to the i Annals/ the work of his 
mature years. Messala, one of the speakers, attributes the decline 
of oratory to the neglect of the arduous method of study adopted by 
the older orators, who learned their art by attaching themselves to 
some eminent speaker, and by experience in the actual business of 
life : in Messala's time, the school of the rhetoricians was the only 
place of discipline for the young. But Maternus, another speaker, 
indicates more truly the causes of the decline of eloquence, by a ref- 
erence to the political condition of the Romans, and. the suppression 
of their energies under the empire, as compared with the turbulent 
activity of the Republican period. 

" The l Annals' of Tacitus are the work of his riper age, on which 
his historical reputation mainly rests. Though entitled Annals, and 
in general sufficiently true to the chronological order of events, the 
title of Annals conveys no exact notion of the character of this work. 
The writer moulded the matter of his history, and adapted it to his 
purpose, which was not a complete enumeration of the domestic and 
foreign events of the period, but a selection of such as portrayed in 
the liveliest colors the character of the Romans. The central figure 
in this picture is the imperial power, and the person who wielded it, 
the Princeps, and every event is viewed in relation to him. The no- 
tion of the Romans of the age of Tacitus is inseparably associated 
with the notion of the government of one man. The power that had 
been founded and consolidated by Augustus had been transmitted 
through many princes, few of whom had distinguished themselves 
by ability, and some had sullied the purple with the most abominable 
crimes. Yet the imperial power was never shaken .after it was once 
firmly established, and the restoration of the old Republic was never 
seriously contemplated by any sober thinker. The necessity of the 
imperial power was felt, and the historian, while he describes the 
vices and follies of those who had held it, and often casts a glance 
of regret toward the Republican period, never betrays a suspicion 
that this power could be replaced by any other, in the abject and 
fallen state of the Roman people. It is this conviction which gives 
to the historical writings of Tacitus that dramatic character which 
pervades the whole, and is seen in the selection of events, and the 
mode in which they are presented to the reader. It is consistent 
with this that the bare facts, as they may be extracted from his nar- 
rative, are true, and that the coloring with which he has heightened 
them may often be false. This coloring was his mode of viewing 
the progress of events, and the development of the imperial power : 



LIFE AND WRITINGS OF TACITUS. XV 

the effect, however, is, that the reader often overlooks the bare his- 
torical facts, and carries away only the general impression which the 
historian's animated drama presents. 

" Tacitus had formed a full, and, it may be, a correct conception 
of the condition of the empire in his own time, and the problem 
which he proposed to himself was, not only to narrate the course of 
events from the close of the reign of Augustus, but to develop their 
causes. (Hist., i., 4.) For his 'Annals,' at leasts he could claim, as 
he does, the merit of strict impartiality : he lived after the events 
that he describes, and, consequently, had no wrongs to complain of, no 
passions or prejudices to mislead him. (Ann., i., 1.) He observes, 
also, in the commencement of his ' Histories,' that neither Galba, 
Otho, nor Vitellius had either conferred on him any favor or done 
him any injury. To Vespasian, Titus, and Domitian he acknowledges 
his obligations. The reign of Domitian is, unfortunately, lost; but 
we may collect from the expressions in the ; Life of Agricola' (c. 43, 
45, &c.) that the favors which Tacitus had received did not save thi3 
contemptible tyrant from the historian's just indignation. 

" The tone which characterizes the historical works of Tacitus is 
an elevation of thought which had its foundation in the moral dignity 
of the writer, and the consciousness of having proposed to himself a 
noble object. He was a profound observer of character : it was his 
study to watch the slightest indications in human conduct, and by 
correctly interpreting these outward signs, to penetrate into the hid- 
den recesses of the heart. His power of reaching those thoughts 
which are often almost unconsciously the springs of a man's actions, 
has, perhaps, never been equalled by any historical writer. Tacitus 
had lived through a time when the value of the lessons of philosophy 
had to be tested by their practical application, and his historical stud- 
ies carried him through a period in which the mass were sunk in 
sensuality, and the really good and great had no consolation but in 
the consciousness of their own thoughts. Though he appears to be- 
long to no sect of philosophers, his practical morality was of the Stoic 
school, the only school which, in those degenerate times, could sus- 
tain the sinking spirits of the Romans, and which, even under favor- 
able circumstances, guided the conduct of the wise Cornelius, the 
noblest man that ever possessed sovereign power. The religious 
opinions of Tacitus partook of the character of his age : he had no 
strong convictions, no settled belief of a moral government of the 
world : his love of virtue and his abhorrence of vice were purely 
moral; they had no reference to a future existence. (Ann., iii., 18; 
vi., 22.) In one of his earliest productions he hopes, rather than ex- 
pects, that the souls of the departed may still live, and be conscious 



XVI LIFE AND WRITINGS OF TACITUS. 

of what is passing on earth. (Agric, 46.) But in his latest writings 
there are no traces that his hopes or his wishes had ever ripened 
into a belief. 

" The style of Tacitus, especially in his * Annals,' is the apt expres- 
sion of his thought : concise, vigorous, and dramatic. He has, per- 
haps, attained as great a degree of condensation as is compatible with 
perspicuity ; sometimes his meaning is obscured by his labor to be 
brief. His historical works are especially works of art, constructed on 
a fixed principle, and elaborated in obedience to it. He loves to dis- 
play his rhetorical skill, but he subdues it to his dramatic purpose. 
It is a fault that his art is too apparent, that his thoughts are some- 
times imperfectly or obscurely expressed, that he affects an air of 
mystery, that his reflections on events are often an inseparable part 
of them, and, consequently, the impressions which it is his object to 
produce can only be rectified by the vigorous scrutiny of a matured 
mind. Yet those who have made Tacitus a study generally end in 
admiring him, even for some of those qualities which at first repelled : 
almost every word has its place and its meaning, and the contrast 
between the brevity of the expression and the fullness of the thought, 
as it marks the highest power of a writer, so it furnishes fit matter 
for reflection to those who have attained a like intellectual maturity. 

" Tacitus must have had abundant sources of information, though 
he indicates them only occasionally. He mentions several of those 
historians who lived near his own time, as Vipsanius Messala and 
Fabius Rusticus; he also speaks of the memoirs of Agrippina and oth- 
ers. The Orationes Principum, the Fasti, the Acts of the Senate, 
and the various legislative measures, were also sources of which he 
availed himself. It has been already intimated that the minute de- 
tail of events was often foreign to the purpose of Tacitus, and, accord- 
ingly, he is sometimes satisfied with giving the general effect or 
meaning of a thing, without aiming at perfect accuracy. Thus we 
can not always collect with certainty from Tacitus the provisions of 
the Senatus Consulta of which he speaks ; and for the purpose of any 
historical investigation of Roman legislation, his statements must 
sometimes be enlarged or corrected by reference to other sources, 
and particularly to the * Digest.' " 



TABLE 



OF THE LIFE AND TIMES OF TACITUS. 



Caius Cornelius Tacitus was probably born in 
this year, at Interamna, in Umbria, called at the 
present day Terni. 

Claudius dies on the 13th of October, and is suc- 
ceeded by Nero. 

Quiutus Veranius succeeds Aulus Didius in the 
command of Britain, and dies in the same year. 

Quintus Veranius is succeeded in the command of 
Britain by Suetonius Paulinus, fifth consular 
legatus, who is accompanied, most probably, 
by Agricola as military tribune. 

[Agricola was at that time twenty-two or 
twenty-three years of age. He was born on 
the 13th of June, A.D. 37, at Forum Julii (Fre- 
jus) in Gaul.] 

Expedition of Paulinus to Mona. General insur- 
rection of the Britons under Boadicea. 

Suetonius Paulinus is succeeded by Petronius Tur- 
pilianus, sixth consular legatus. Agricola (aged 
twenty-five) returns to Rome, marries Domitia 
Decidiana, and is a candidate for the quaestor- 
ship. 

Agricola (aged twenty-six) quaestor in Asia. His 
eldest son dies after the birth of a daughter. 
Nero marries Poppaea. 

Petronius Turpilianus is succeeded by Trebellius 
Maximus, seventh consular legatus. Britain, as 
far as Anglesea, mostly under the Roman do- 
minion. Agricola returns to Rome, and spends 
the rest of the year in quiet. 

Agricola (aged twenty-eight) tribune of the plebs. 
Piso's conspiracy against Nero. Seneca and 
Lucan put to death. Great fire at Rome. Per- 
secution of the Christians. 

Agricola (aged twenty-nine) is a candidate for the 
praetorship. Tacitus receives instructions from 
some of the most celebrated rhetoricians of his 
time ; among others, from Marcus Aper, Julius 
Secundus, and Quintilian. Death of Paetus 
Thrasea. 

Agricola (aged thirty) is praetor. 

Nero put to death on the 9th of June. He is suc- 
ceeded by Galba, who intrusts to Agricola (aged 



A.U.C. 

806 


Age of 
Tacitus. 


807 


2 


811 


6 


812 
813 


7 
8 


814 


9 


815 


10 


816 


11 


817 


12 


818 


13 


819 


14 


820 
821 


15 
16 



XV111 



TABLE OF THE LIFE 



69 



70 

71 

73 

74 
75 

76 

77 

78 
79 

80 

81 
84 

85 



A.U.C. 


Age of 
Tacitus. 


822 


17 


823 


18 


824 


19 


826 


21 


827 


22 


828 


23 


829 


24 


830 


25 


831 


26 


832 


27 


833 


28 


834 


29 


837 


32 


838 


33 



thirty-one) the investigation respecting the treas- 
sures of the temples. 

Galba is put to death on the 15th of January, and 
is succeeded by Otho. Otho's partisans, at the 
plunder of Intemelium, kill Agricola' smother, in 
the beginning of April. Otho dies on the 16th of 
Aprils and is succeeded by Vitellius. Vespasian 
is proclaimed emperor in Egypt and Judsea. 
Agricola (aged thirty-two) joins Vespasian's, 
party. Vitellius dies on the 21st of December. 
Mutiny of the soldiers in Britain against Trebel- 
lius Maxinlus, who is succeeded in the command 
by Vettius Bolanus, eighth consular legatus. 

Agricola (aged thirty-three) is intrusted with the 
command of the twentieth legion in Britain. 
Jerusalem taken by Titus. 

Vettius Bolanus is succeeded by Petilius Cerialis, 
the ninth consular legatus. Tacitus begins to 
speak in public. 

Agricola (aged thirty-six) returns to Rome, and be- 
comes a patrician. 

Agricola (aged thirty-seven) commences his gov- 
ernment of the province of Aquitania. 

Cerialis succeeded by Julius Frontinus, the tenth 
consular legatus. 

Frontinus subdues the Silures. Agricola (aged 
thirty-nine) recalled from Aquitania. 

Agricola (aged forty) consul suffectus in July, 
August, and September. He betroths his 
daughter, who was at that time scarcely four- 
teen, to Tacitus, and gives her to him in mar- 
riage after his consulship. 

Agricola (aged forty-one) succeeds Frontinus in 
the command of Britain. He conquers the Or- 
dovices and subdues the island of Mona. Taci- 
tus is appointed vigintivir and quaestor. 

Vespasian dies on the 23d of June, and is succeed- 
ed by Titus. Agricola (aged forty-two) ad- 
vances as far as the Solway Frith, and subdues 
almost the whole of England. Introduces civil- 
ization among the Britons. 

Tacitus either aedile or tribune of the plebs. Agric- 
ola (aged forty-three) subdues the southern na- 
tions of Scotland as far as the Frith of Tay. 

Titus dies on the 15th of September, and is suc- 
ceeded by Domitian. 

Agricola (aged forty-seven) defeats the Caledonians 
under Calgacus at the Grampian Hills. The 
Roman fleet sails round the north and west 
coasts of Britain. Expedition of Domitian 
against the Catti. 

Agricola (aged forty-eight) is recalled from Britain, 
and is succeeded by Sallustius Lucullus. 



AND TIMES OF TACITUS. 



XIX 



A.D. 

86 
87 



89 



90 



91 
93 



94 



97 



100 



101 
to 
105 



A.U.C. 

839 
840 



841 
842 

843 



844 
846 



847 
849 

850 

851 
853 



854 
to 
858 



Age of 

Tacitus. 

34 

35 



36 
37 

38 



39 
41 



42 

44 

45 



49 
to 
53 



Appius Sabinus and the Roman army are defeated 
by the Dacians under Decebalus. 

Several Roman armies are defeated in Moesia, 
Dacia, Germany, and Pannonia. The public 
voice calls for Agricola as general. Domitian 
sets out for Dacia, and remains in Moesia. 

Tacitus prsetor. The Ludi Sceculares are per- 
formed. 

Unsuccessful expedition of Domitian against the 
Marcomanni and Quadi. Civica put to death. 
The philosophers are banished from Rome by 
Domitian. 

Agricola (aged fifty-three) declines the province 
of Asia. Tacitus retires with his wife from 
Rome. 

Triumph of Domitian. 

Death of Agricola on the 23d of August. Tacitus 
returns to Rome. Helvidius the younger, Aru- 
lenus Rustic us, and Herennius Senecio condemn- 
ed to death. 

Second banishment of the philosophers from Rome. 

Domitian is put to death on the 18th of September, 
and is succeeded by Nerva. 

Tacitus consul. He writes and publishes his 
Agricola in this year. Nerva adopts Trajan on 
the 19th of September. 

Nerva dies on the 27th of January, and is succeed- 
ed by Trajan. 

Tacitus, in conjunction with Pliny, accuses Marius 
Priscus, proconsul of Africa, of extortion in the 
administration of this province. 

Trajan makes war against the Dacians and defeats 
them, and eventually reduces Dacia into the 
form of a Roman province. 
Tacitus appears to have lived till the time of 

Hadrian, who succeeded Trajan, A.D. 117 ; but he 

took no part in public affairs after his consulship. 

Note. The preceding table is taken from the English edition, and 
differs, as will be perceived, from the Account of the Life and Writ- 
ings of Tacitus, in relation to the birth-year and native place of the 
historian. In a matter of this kind, where no certainty can be ar- 
rived at, the variation becomes comparatively unimportant. 



REMARKS 



STYLE OF TACITUS. 



REMARKS 



STYLE OF TACITUS. 



TRANSLATED* FROM THE LATIN OF WILHELM BOETTICHER. 

Tacitus generally preserved in his language the usage of former 
writers, and chiefly of the historians; and only departed from it in 
such a degree as to improve and increase certain peculiarities which 
the ancient writers sometimes display in single instances, and in 
which they, too, have mostly followed the language of the poets. It 
is true, he adopted the usage of his age, and indulged his own pecul- 
iar genius in new constructions, and in the formation of compound 
words; but he never, in these instances, transgressed the laws of his 
native tongue : like a great legislator, who best provides for the com- 
mon welfare by retaining, on the one hand, the customs of antiquity, 
while he also employs his own genius in inventing laws which are 
better and more suited to the demands of his age. 

There are, indeed, many passages in his writings which are render- 
ed obscure by a conciseness almost intricate and abrupt ; many which, 
departing from the common mode of speech, call for much attention 
in the reader. But just as the milk-like exuberance of Livy and the 
wonderful clearness of Cicero delight the minds of their readers, and 
gratify them with a pleasure which is presented, as it were, spon- 
taneously, and obtained by no great labor; so the brevity of Tacitus, 
obscure, indeed, but never unpleasing, never impenetrable to the 
edge of genius — while it calls forth all the reader's strength, and 
never suffers his mind to be inactive, but always engages him more 
and more in new efforts to imbibe deeply the loftiest and most 
beautiful sentiments — fills and pervades with a joy assuredly not in- 
ferior, nay, imperishable, the minds of those who come to the perusal 
of the works of Tacitus, not as to thickets bristling with thorns, but 
as to a consecrated grove, glimmering with a doubtful but holy light. 

Now the laws which Tacitus has followed in the composition of his 
writings, and the sources from which chiefly all those things proceed 
which constitute the peculiarity of his style, may be most convenient- 
ly referred to variety, which we may also call copiousness; to brevity, 
on which llie force of language depends; and to the poetical complexion 
* By Mr. Philip Smith, B.A., University College, London. 



XXIV ON THE STYLE OF TACITUS. 

of his narrative* This three-fold division, therefore, we shall cany 
out in such a manner as, by observing some certain order, to enumer- 
ate all the peculiarities of the style of Tacitus, either as examples of 
the variety, or of the brevity, or of the'poetical complexion, by which 
his style is marked ; but with this restriction, that many peculiarities 
can not be described in words and brought under rules ; and we think 
it sufficient to have collected here examples of each kind, and thus 
to have pointed out to the students of Tacitus the road by which they 
may arrive at a fuller knowledge of that writer. 



ON THE VARIETY OF THE STYLE OF TACITUS. 

Of all writers, Tacitus has taken most pains to vary both single 
words and the composition of sentences. In this quality he was pre- 
ceded chiefly by Livy and Sallust. And the care of Livy, in this re- 
spect, indicates copiousness and exuberance ; but that of Sallust an 
affectation of antiquity. The reason of this peculiarity Tacitus him- 
self plainly enough declares. For he says that "his labor was in a 
restricted space, and inglorious;" that "the positions of nations, the 
vicissitudes of battles, the triumphant deaths of generals, interest and 
refresh the minds of readers; but he had to siring together cruel 
mandates, perpetual accusations, treacherous friendships, the ruin of 
innocent men, and causes which had the same issue, things strikingly 
similar even to satiety "\ 

It is not, therefore, to be wondered at that, in collecting the me- 
morials of past events, he should have taken pains to acquire that 
variety which presented itself spontaneously to the writers of the old 
republic, in order to avoid burdening and wearying the minds of his 
readers by expressing in the same words events perpetually recurring. 
As to the fact that for this very end he used certain ancient forms 
and words, and interspersed them in his narrative, we know that 
though he retained as much of all ancient things as was proper and 
becoming, yet he did not despise the more polished style of his own 
age.t 

* But it must be observed that, in many passages, all these qualities are united ; 
so that in his very brevity there appear at the same time variety and a poetical 
complexion. 

t Annals, iv., 32, 33 : " Nobis in arto et inglorius labor." " Situs gentium, varietates 
proeliorum, clari ducum exitus retinent ac redintegrant legentium animum : nos 
sseva jussa, continuas accusationes, fallaces amicitias, perniciem innocentium, et 
easdem exitu causas conjungimus, obvia rerum similitudine et satietate." 

X See the Dialogus de Oratoribus, c. 22 : " Variet compositionem ; nee omnes 
clausulas mio et eodem modo determinet." And c. 18: "Non esse unum elo- 
quentise vultum," &c. 



ITS VARIETY, XXV 

The following are examples of his variety : 

I. His modes of writing words are various. 

a. Inrumpere and irrumpere, adstitit and astitit, adlicere and allicere, 
adpellere and appellere ; colloqui, colligere, and conloqui, conlectus ; 
qffundere and obfundere ; accelerare, accolere, accursus, and adcelerare, 
adcolere, adcursus. 

b. Cotidie and quotidie ; promiscus, promisee, and promiscuus, pro- 
miscue; abisse and abiisse, epistula and epistola; volgns, volnus, voltus, 
convolsus, revolsus, mavoltis, and valgus, vulnus, &c. ; and also, in soma 
places, scEVom, pravom, alvom, captivom, donativorn avonculo, for the 
common scevum, pravum, &c. ; tegumen, tegimen, and legmen; balnecd 
{balnea) and balinem ; claudere and cludere; inclulus and inclitus; 
quotiens, totiens, viciens, septuagiens, and quoties, toties, &c. ; trans- 
mittere, transnatare, and tramittere, tranatare ; vinculum, and vinclum ; 
Hercule and Hercle; libido, and once lubido ; altissumus, optumus, op- 
tumates, proxumus (these examples are found each only once in 
Tacitus), and altissimus, Sic; monimentum and monumentum; decu- 
mus and decimus, &c. ; urgere and urguere, intellegerc and intelligere, 
oreretur and oriretur, poteretur and potiretur, detractare and detrectare. 

II. Words are variously inflected. 

a. Tigranen, Tigranem, Lirin, Turesim; the accusative plural 
ending in Is of participles and adjectives chiefly, less frequently of 
substantives, is interchanged with the common form ; as, imminentis, 
omnis, tris, navis ; the genitive which ends in um with the common 
termination in orum ; deum (very rarely deorum), liberum, posterurn 
(Annal., hi., 72), quindecimvirum (Annal., vi., 12); parentum and 
paren^um. By a poetical usage received from the writers of the 
Silver Age, we read in Annal., iv., 41, salutantum for salutantium, 
and several examples of the same kind occur repeatedly. Cai, Cnei, 
Cceselli, Patulei, Rubelli, Pacari, but Tiberii, Pompeii, &c. ; di, dis, 
dii, diis, and deis ; quibus, and not less frequently quis. The dative 
ending in u is very frequent in Tacitus, as well as the common term- 
ination ; as, luxu, nuru, metu, decursu, cruciatu. Csesar, who uses that 
form more frequently, generally gives nothing else but magistralu, 
equitatu, exercitu. 

b. Heteroclite and defective words : plebes, plebei (gen. and dat.), 
and plebs, plebis, plebi (so in Cicero, Livy, and other former writers) ; 
juventa, senecta, {senium), poetical words, and juventus, senectus (after 
Livy's example) ; but juventus in Tacitus always means youths, ju- 
venta no less constantly the age of youth ; nouns are both of the first 
and fifth declension in the nominative (as is usual), in the accusative 

2 



XXVI ON THE STYLE OF TACITUS. 

and in the ablative cases : materia and materies, mollitia and mollities, 
duritia and durities (so, also, in Cicero), with an obsolete genitive, 
Annal., iii., 34, midta duritie veterum in melius et Icetius mutata, un- 
less it is better to take duritie for the ablative, with ex understood. 
Oblivio and {Hist., iv., 9) oblivium (the plural oblivia occurs frequent- 
ly in the poets), obsidio and obsidium (so Varro, Plautus, Sallust), 
which in Tacitus, indeed, is the same as obses, Annal., xi., 10, Meher- 
daten — obsidio nobis datum. So he uses consortium for the common 
consortio (as Liv., iv., 5); alimonium, Annal., xi., 16, after Varro's 
example ; but Plautus, Suetonius, Gellius, Apuleius, use alimonia, ce. 
Eventus and (what is not an uncommon word with Cicero) eventum, 
Annal., iv, 33, plures aliorum eventis docentur ; prcetextu and (Hist., 
ii., 100; iii., 80; as in Seneca and Suetonius) prcetexto ; Vologeses, 
genitive Vologesis and Vologesi, dative Vologeso, accusative Vologesen, 
ablative Vologese. Add to these decus and decor (as in the writers 
of the same age); sonos and (the poetical form) sonor ; honos and 
honor; satietas and (Sallust) satias; sexus and (Sallust, Livy) secus; 
munera and munia (and this frequently) ; muri and mania (compare 
Hist., iii., 30, near the end) ; gratia and grates ; exanimus, exanimis ; 
semermus, semermis; inermus,inermis ; claritudo, claritas ; Jirmitudo, 
jirmitas. 

c. Heterogeneous words: loci and loca, where they refer to a 
country, are used indifferently by Tacitus ; other writers, less fre- 
quently, use loci. In Annal., xv., 32, loci are the seats in a theatre; 
on the other hand, Livy and Vellius call them loca. Arguments, 
which are treated of in a debate or speech, and also passages or sen- 
tences of speeches or books, are called by all writers, and Tacitus 
likewise, loci. Some names of cities ending in a are both feminine 
and neuter ; Artaxata, Hierosolyma, and others. 

III. The following examples will prove how great is the variety 
and copiousness of Tacitus in the actual use of words. 

a. The word auris is used by no writer so often and so variously ; 
for he gives aures prcebere, adire, perstringere, advertere, imbuere, vi- 
tare, polluere, obstruere, verberare, offendere; ad aures conferre, perve- 
nire ; auribus obtemyerare, auribus non satis competere, aures respuunt, 
agnoscunt aliquid ; diver sitas, fastidium aurium; oratio auribus judi- 
cum accommodata ; diver sissimarum aurium copia ; cognitce populi au- 
res; aures adrectiores, trepidce, lentm, promts, proncc, superbce, cequce, 
apertce, ita formatce. Two reasons may be given why Tacitus so often 
used this word: first, because he was an orator, on which account 
most examples of it are furnished by his Dialogue concerning Ora- 
tors ; and, therefore, Cicero, also, and Quintilian often use this word , 



ITS VARIETY. XXV11 

secondly, because, in describing times which, to use his own words, 
had destroyed by prosecutions the intercourse of speaking and hear- 
ing, and recalled the recollection of the well-known ear* of the ty- 
rant Dionysius, he was able, by the use of this mode of speech, to ex- 
press with the greatest propriety and effect many things which be- 
longed to the wicked arts of tyranny and slavery. 

b. There is generally a variety of the same kind in describing 
hidden and secret things. Thus to palam are opposed secreto, intus, 
domi, per occultum, per occulta, in occulto, privatim, furtim, secretis 
criminationibus, occultis nuntiis, inter secreta convivii, voto; Annal., 
xvi., 7, mortem Poppcece ut palam tristem, ita recordantibus Icetam; 
Hist., i., 10, palam laudares ; secreta male audiebant; propalam — se- 
cretis nuntiis, secretis promissis. 

c. Since Tacitus had to mention frequent deaths, he has in these, 
also, used very great variety: relinquendce vitce certus; finis sponie 
sumtus, qucesita mors; suo ictu mortem invenire, fincm vitce sibi ponere, 
sumere exitium, voluntario exitu cadere, sua manu cadere, mortem sponte 
sumere, se vita privare, se ipsum interficere (and interfectus also is used 
in a rather unusual way of voluntary death in Annal., i., 2, interfecto 
Antonio : compare Hist., i., 53, occiso Nerone), voluntaU exstingui, vim 
vitce suce adferre, vitam abstinentia finire, egestate cibi perimi, venenum 
haurire, gladio incumber e, senili manu ferrum tentare ; venas, brachia ex- 
solver e, resolvere, abrumpere, interscindere, abscindere, interrumpere, in- 
cidere, aperire rursum; levem ictum venis inferre; defungi, exstingui, 
obire, concedere, oppetere, finire, fato fungi, fato obire, fato concedere, 
morte fato propera auferri, mortem obire, mortalitatem explere, finem 
vitce implere, supremum diem explere, concedere vita, cedere vita, vitam 
finire; mors {mortes), obitus, excessus, finis ; Dial., 18, fatalis et meus 
dies. 

d. Propinqua vespera, flexo in vesperam die, vesperascente die, in- 
umbrante vespera, prcecipiti in occasum die, extremo die, sero diei, ob- 
scuro diei. 

e. Those phrases, also, are changed which it is the usual custom 
not to alter; as, aqua et igni interdicere {Annal., iii., 38 ; iv., 21), aqua 
et igni arceri {Annal., hi., 50), aqua atque igni prohiberi {Annal., xvi., 
12). 

f. Particles are varied more frequently than in other writers : haud 
and non, haudquaquam, nequaquam; dein, delude; exin, exinde; proin, 
proinde; modo — modo and interim — quandoque, modo — nunc, modo— 
ecce nunc ; erga, and, with the same signification, contra, adversus, in ; 
penes and ad, in, apud ; juxta and ad, apud. They serve for a transi- 

* A combination of passages, by which Dionysius is said to have been able to 
overhear the words of his captives as he sat in his palace. 



XXV111 ON THE STYLE OF TACITUS. 

tion : his atque (ac, et) talibus, his et pluribus, ceterum, dehinc, hinc, ad 
hoc, ad hcec (besides) ac, et, inter quce, interea, per idem tempus, sub idem 
tempus, interim, simul, proinde, exinde, deinde, igitur (seldom itaque) 
ergo, at, at Hercule (Hercle). 

IV. Tacitus is also remarkable for great copiousness and variety of 
words ; because, besides the words received in common use, he like- 
wise frequently uses such as are found only in single passages in the 
writers of the former age ; because, too, he adopted those words 
with which the poets of every age, and the writers of his own time, 
enriched the Latin tongue ; and, lastly, because he himself discov- 
ered and composed many new words; as, cenlurionatus, exstimulator, 
instigatrix, inturbidus, quinquiplicare, prceposse, provivere, pervigere, 
superstagnare, superurgere. And he followed the same plan in the 
meanings of words, not only combining the different senses which 
they had at different times, but also referring them, according to his 
own taste, to other things which bore some degree of affinity to the 
things which other writers had used those words to express. Of this 
I will give the following examples : 

a. As in Cicero we read adducere habenas, in Seneca adducere vul- 
tum ad tristitiam, in Quintiiian adducta frons; so in Tacitus, with a 
slight change in the meaning of the word, AnnaL, xii., 7, adductum 
(i. e., severum, rigidum) et quasi virile servitium; xiv., 4, familiaritate 
juvenili — et rursus adductus ; and Tacitus alone appears thus to have 
used the adverb, adductius {regnari, imperitare), in Germ., 34, and 
Hist., iii., 7. 

b. Expedire, 1. As in its common use, is the same as praparare, 
parare, as arma, alimenta, iter, concilium; Annal., xiv., 55, qui me non 
tantum prcevisa, sed subita expedire docuisti, concerning facility of 
speech. 2. Then in the same sense a3 exponere : examples of this 
meaning are furnished by Terence, Virgil, and other poets; AnnaL, 
iv., 1, nunc originem, mores — expediam, and so frequently. 3. Tacitus 
alone appears to have used it absolutely for expeditionem suscipere ; 
Hist., i., 10, nimice voluptates cum vacaret ; quotiens expedierat mag- 
n<B virtutes ; chap. Ixxxviii., multos — secum expedire jubet; but exactly 
in the same way, ducere is used for ducere exercitum, not only by Tac- 
itus, but much oftener by Livy. 

c. Externus, besides its common use, in which it simply applies to 
foreign nations; as, Annal., xi., 16, ire externum ad imperium, is also in 
Tacitus synonymous with hostilis; Hist., iv., 32, ut absisteret bello, 
neve externa armis falsis velar et; iii., 5, ne inter discordias (Romano- 
rum) externa molirentur. In the same manner diver sus is used by 
Tacitus of things relating to enemies and opposing parties; as, Annal.,. 



ITS VARIETY. XXIX 

xiv., 30, stab at pro littore diversa (the hostile) acies ; Hist., iii., 5, ne 
majore ex diverso mercede (received from their adversaries) jus fas que 
exuerent ; and diversus is generally synonymous with alienus, abhor- 
reus ab aliqua re : Annal., ii., 2, diversus a majorum institutis ; vi., 33, 
diversa induere (espouse different sides ; but thus Livy, also, speaks of 
diver si auctores. 

V. In the grammatical construction of words the very great 
variety of the style of Tacitus is discovered. 

a. The singular and plural numbers are interchanged : miles, eques 
(used, also, of those who are of equestrian rank), veteranus, legiona- 
rius, and miliies, equites, &c, and more often, indeed, than in former 
writers: Annal., vi., 35, cum Parthus — distraheret turmas, Sarmatce — 
contis gladiisque ruerent ; Hist., iii., 59, Samnis Pelignusque et Marsi. 
The plural, used for the sake of majesty, is often joined with the sin- 
gular: Annal., iv., 11, ut peter 'em ab Us, quorum in manus cura nostra 
venerit, &c, Agr., 43, nobis nihil comperti adjirmare ausim. 

b. Different cases are joined together : Annal., xii., 29, legionem — 
pro ripa componeret, subsidio victis et terrorem adversus viciores ; Hist., 
i., 53, corpore ingeiis, animi immodicus ; Annal., xv., 59, nomen mulieris 
Arria Galla, priori marito Domitius Silus : and the same cases with 
different significations: Germ., 35, occidere solent, non disciplina et 
severitate, sed impclu et ira; Hist., ii., 22, molares in genti ponder e acfra- 
gore provolvunt. 

c. The dative, accusative, genitive, and prepositions are used in 
the same kind of construction : promptus rei, in rem, ad rem; inrum- 
pere terram, in terram, ad tcrram ; Annal., xiv., 38, cujus adversa pravi- 
tati ipsius, prospera ad fortunam rei publican referebat, unless you prefer 
taking this as a zeugma; xii., 55, vim cultoribus et oppidanis ac ple- 
rumque in mercatores — audebant; Annal., iv., 1, siti obtegens, in alios 
criminator ; xiii., 21, ultionem in delatores et prcemia amicis obtinuit. 
(See below, on the Brevity of the Style of Tacitus, hi., 1.) 

d. There is the greatest variety in the mode of comparison. 1. 
The usual construction quo — tanto, quanto — tanto, scite magis quam 
probe, avidius quam consultius. 2. The positive, or other words 
which have its force, is used for the comparative in almost the same 
manner as we read in Agr., 4, vehementius quam caute : Annal., i., 68, 
quanto inopina, tanto majora offunduntur ; c. 74, quantoque incautius 
efferverat, pcenitentia patiens tulit (compare Livy, i., 25, Romani — 
Horatium accipiunt eo majo?x cum gaudio, quo prope metum res 
fuerat) ; iv., 67, quanto intentus olim — tanto resolutus. Compare 
Livy, xxi., 48, quantum elatus — tantum anxius. 3. Tanto is trans- 
posed; Annal., i., 81, speciosa verbis — quantoque majore libertatis 



XXX ON THE STYLE OF TACITUS. 

imagine tegebantur, tanto eruptura ad infensius servitium. 4. Tanto 
or eo is omitted: Annal., ii., 5, quanto acriora — stadia militum et 
aversa (see No. 2) patrui voluntas, celerandce, victorice intentior; Hist., 
iii., 58, quanto quis clarior, minus jidus. Compare Livy, xxv., 38, quo 
audacius erat (consilimn) magis placebat. 5. Plura is omitted : Annal., 
iii., 5, tanto plura decora mox tribui par fuisse, quanto prima for s ne- 
gavisset. 6. Eodem actu is put for tanto; Hist., i., 12, qui in dies 
quanto potentior, eodem actu invisior erat. 7. Quam is used alone, 
meaning more than, magis or potius being omitted: Hist., iii., 60, 
pr&dce quam periculorum socius ; Annal., iv., 61, Claris majoribus 
quam vetustis. Compare Livy, vii., 8, multiplex quam pro numero 
damnum est. 8. Also the more uncommon construction, Annal., iii., 
8, quern haud fratris interitu trucem, quam — cequiorem sibi sperabat, 
put for non tarn — quam, or tantum abest ut — ut. 

e. Adjectives and genitive cases are mixed together: Annal., ii., 3, 
Armenia — inter Parthorum et Romanas opes infida : xii., 14, ex quis 
Izates Adiabeno, mox Acbarus Arabum cum exercitu abscedunt. 

f. Verbs are variously and, indeed, rather uncommonly construct- 
ed: fungi officiis and officia, potiri flagitii, honoribus, regiam (by 
archaism), adipisci aliquid and rerum, dominationis (so in Tacitus 
alone) ; prcesidere alicui rei and (what there seems to be no example 
of in other writers) Medos, Pannoniam • jubere alicui tributum ; Ger- 
manos — non juberi, non regi ; Annal., xi., 32, jussit ut Britannicus et 
Octavia — pergerent ; xiii., 15, B r it annico jussit ex surgeret ; chap. 40, 
quibus jusserat ut — resisterent. Compare Terence, Andria, ii., 5, 1, me 
jussit — observarem; Cicero also, Livy, and others sometimes join this 
verb with the dative. So with many verbs is joined the infinitive 
and ut, ne, quod; also, the preposition ad and the particle ut are in- 
terchanged; e. g., Annal., ii., 62, haud leve decus Drusus quasivit il- 
liciens Germanos ad discordias, utque fracto jam Maroboduo usque in 
exitium insisteretur. The historical present and perfect are joined to- 
gether: Annal., ii., 7, Ccesar — jubel ; ipse — sex legiones eo duxit; c. 
20. Seio Tuberoni legato tradit equitem campumque ; peditum aciem 
ita instruxit ut, &c. ; i., 39, perduci ad se Plancum imperat, recepitque 
in tribunal. — " There are those who ascribe such things to negligence 
in the author. But he seems to me to have thus adjusted them de- 
signedly, like a skillful workman, so as to distinguish wisely and with 
a polished taste what words should flow with a more animated, and 
what with a more tranquil course." — ( Walther on the Annals, ii., 7.) 
In the same way he places together the historical present, the his- 
torical infinitive, and the perfect: Annal., iii., 20, Eodem anno Tac- 
farinas — bellum in Africa renovat, vagis primum populationibus — 
dein vicos exscindere f trakere graves prcedas, postremo — cohortem 



ITS VARIETY. XXXI 

Romanam circumsedit; xii., 51, conjux gravida — toleravit; post — 
ubi quati uterus et viscera vibrantur, or are ut, &c. ; xv., 27, simul con- 
silio terror em adjicere, et Megistanas Armenios — pellit sedibus, &c. 

g. There is great variety in the syntax of particles: Annal., i., 2, 
per acies aut proscriptione cadere; ii., 70, ea Germanico haud minus 
ira quam per metum accepta; Annal., xi., 32, ut quis reperiebatur in 
publico aut per latebras; iv., 51, nox aliis in audaciam, aliis ad for- 
midinem opportuna. — Germ., 20, sororum filiis idem apud avunculum 
qui ad patrem honor ; Annal., vi., 22, tristia in bonos, Iceta apud de- 
teriores esse. 

VI. Constructions of different kinds are often mingled to- 
gether ; and after beginning with some one form of speech, he passes 
abruptly, and without regarding the law of uniformity, to another. 
Thus very often .the passive and active voices are mixed up together: 
Annal., vi., 44, nihil omissum quo ambiguos illiceret, promti firmaren- 
tur; iv., 44, Albim transcendit, longius penetrata Germania quam quis- 
quam priorum. Compare Livy, xxii., 6, quae Punica religione servata 
fides ab Hannibale est, atque in vincula omnes conjecit. — The accusa- 
tive, the accusative with the infinitive, the finite tenses of the verb 
and particles, are mingled together: Annal., xv., 50, dum scelera 
principis et finem adesse imperio, deligendumque qui — succurreret inter 
se — jaciunt; Hist., iv., 4, promsit sententiam ut honorificam in bonum 
principem, it a falsa aberant. (Compare Annal., hi., 30, fato poten- 
Ucb — an satias capit.) Annal., iv., 38, quod alii modestiam, multi, 
quia diffideret, quidam ut de generis animi inter pretabantur. Compare 
Sallust's Catiline, 10, avaritia — superbiam, crudelitatem, deos neglegere, 
omnia venalia habere edocuit. — The participle, gerund, finite tenses 
of the verb, and particles are placed together: Annal., i., 62, quod 
Tiberio haud probatum, seu cuncta Germanici in deterius trahenti, 
sive — credebat; iii., 31, absentiam — meditans, sive ut — impleret; xiii., 
11, orationibus, quas Seneca testificando quam honesta prceciperet vel 
jactandi ingenii — vulgabat; c. 47, socors ingenium ejus in contrarium 
Irahens callidumque et simulatorem interpretando. He passes from 
what is called the oblique narration to the direct (as Livy, i., 13, 47, 
57): Annal., iv., 40, ad ea Tiberius — principum diversam esse sortem; 
falleris enim Sejane, &c. ; Hist., iii., 2, ad ea Antonius Primus — festi- 
nationem ipsis utilem. u Duce tunc Pannonicce ac Mossicce alee perru- 
pere hostem," &c. See, also, the heads Syllepsis and Zeugma, in the 
remarks on the Brevity of his Style, V. 

VII. In the position of words, Tacitus indulges in variety above 
other writers, following chiefly the practice of Iris own age, and he 



XXX11 ON THE STYLE OF TACITUS. 

even sometimes inverts those phrases which other writers are wont 
to preserve constantly in a certain order; as, Annal., xi., 35, consulto 
senatus. (See above,-IIL, e.) 

a. Cognomens, or agnomens, are even placed before names ; and 
in the same way, a term signifying the dignity and office with which 
any one is endowed, is expressed before the name itself, as Agrippa 
Postumus and Postumus Agrippa, M. Annceits Lucanus and Lucanus 
Annceus, Asinius Pollio and Pollio Asinius (thus Cicero, also, has Pollio 
Asinius), Antonius Primus and Primus Antonius; dictator Cccsar and 
Ccdsar dictator (as in Cicero, rex Deiotarus; in Livy, rex Prusias); 
imperator Augustus, Augustus imperator ; but when this dignity was 
perpetual, from the age of Julius Ceesar downward, the title of im- 
perator (as before, in general, that of dictator) used to be placed be- 
fore the proper name. Compare Suetonius ( Cms., 76), honores nimios 
recepit — prcenomen imperatoris. So, besides the common arrangement, 
prcetor Antistius, procurator Marius, augur Lentulus (as in Livy we 
have consul yJEmilius, consul Sidpicius). Add to these, tribunus plebis, 
and plebei, and plebis (plebei) tribunus. 

b. Together with the common' order of the particles we find an 
anastrophe of the prepositions and. conjunctions after the manner of 
the poets, which is admitted also, though less often, by other writers, 
chiefly of the Silver Age: Amisiam et Lupiam amnes inter, disjectas 
inter et vix pervias arenas, sedes inter Veslalium : prceturam intra 
sietit, unum intra damnum; and thus are used super, extra, ultra, con- 
tra, penes, propter, jnxta, apud, ad, and ab : Annal., v., 9, vanescente 
quamquam plebis ira (so Cicero) ; Annal., i., 5, acribus namque cus- 
todiis domum — sepserat (so Livy very often) ; Annal., ii., 15, classem 
quippe (Cicero); Hist., ii., 17, inritabat qjjin etiam (Capitolinus) ; 
Dial., 6, Mis quin immo (in other writers very rare, and every where 
having the first place); Annal., xi., 30, frueretur immo Us (Plautus); 
Germ., 30, durant siquidem colles (Pliny the elder). 

c. With the remarks we have made above (VI.) on the mixture of 
constructions may be compared the Synchysis, which Quintilian calls 
a mixture of words, and of which Livy likewise furnishes not a few 
examples: Annal., i., 10, Pompeianarum gratiam partium ; xii., 65, 
seu Britannicus rerum seu Nero potiretur; xiv., 2, tradit Cluvius 
ardore retinendce Agrippinam potentice eo usque provectam, ut, &c. ; 
c. iv., plaribus sermonibus, modo familiaritate juvenili Nero et rursus 
adductus- — tracto in longum convictu, prosequitur abeuntem; hi., 42, in- 
conditam multitudinem adhuc disjecit, that is, incondi'am adhuc. You 
may also refer Tmesis to this head : Annal., xiii., 50, acri etiam populi 
Romani turn libertate ; Dial., 31, neque enim dum arie et scie.ntia, &c, 
that is, nondum enim; Hist., i., 20, at Mis vix decumce super portiones 
erant. 



ITS FORCE AND BREVITY. XXXUI 

ON THE FORCE AND BREVITY OF THE STYLE OF 
TACITUS. 
All agree, without any hesitation, that the peculiar character of 
Tacitus's style is seen most in the concise brevity of his language ; 
and those who have looked into it more closely, till they have even 
explored all the inmost recesses of his sometimes abrupt diction, pre- 
fer Tacitus to all other writers for this very reason, and admire the- 
divine aspect of his genius, which, the nearer they approach it, and 
the more intently they hang upon its contemplation, so much the 
more deeply penetrates the minds of the beholders. But if you ask 
whence proceeds and what means that taciturn brevity, and where- 
fore it is that you are sometimes moved by it in the inmost corner of 
your heart, seek the answer from actual life, both that of Tacitus and 
your own. Many were then (as now they are, if we would honest- 
ly confess it) the faults, the vices, the crimes of men, with but rare 
examples of substantial, well-tried virtue ; great were envy and the 
ignorance of right ; many were the mockeries that were made of the 
affairs of men, and the empty dissensions of the populace; while but 
very few then, as in our own time even by no means all, were seek- 
ing better and higher things. And as it by no means becomes us, 
who are blessed with the hopes and consolations of the Christian 
faith, to mourn over those things which are faulty in our own age 
with the same grief as that with which we behold a Roman, who ac- 
counted nothing to be loftier and grander than the hereditary glory 
and majesty of his country, mourning over the common corruption of 
all things, and over the republic falling headlong to ruin ; so we sure- 
ly can not blame in Tacitus that kind of bitter pleasure, and that in- 
dignant sparing of words, by which, that he might not, like Sue- 
tonius, impose too heavy a burden on his own and his readers' sense 
of shame by narrating every thing at length with a disgusting loqua- 
city, he has generally conveyed a deeper meaning than his words 
express.* 

I. And, first, in the very collocation of his words there is a cer- 
tain force and brevity : non is sometimes separated from its verb and 
placed first, to increase the force of the sentence; as, AnnaL, vi., 32, 

* The most important passage for discovering the feelings from which this pe- 
culiarity of the style of Tacitus proceeded is that in the Germania (33), where, 
with as deep emotion as he has ever shown, he says, maneat quaso duretque genti- 
bus, Sec. Compare, also, AnnaL, hi., 55, at the end, and Agr., 2, 3 : dedimus pro- 
fecto grande patientice documentum — ademto per inquisiiiones et loquendi audkndique 
commercio, fcc.—prope ad ipsos ezacta atatis lerminos per silentium venimus. 

2* 



XXXIV ON THE STYLE OF TACITUS. 

sed non Tiberius omisit incepta; chap, xxxviii., non enim Tiberium, 
quamquam triennio post ccedem Sejani — tempus, preces, satias mitiga- 
bant; Hist., ii., 70, at non Vitellius flexit oculos. Frequently a word 
is placed first, to imply tacitly the converse of what is stated ; as, An- 
nul., iii., 2, miser at duas prcetorias eokortes Ccesar, but did not come 
himself. Not unfrequently some particle is implied in the word 
which is put first; as, Annal., ii., 39, vivere (adhuc) Agrippam; chap, 
xl., postremo dat negoiium Sallustio (tandem certus consilii). 

II. The force of the language depends often on single words. 

a. On frequentatives, which are repeatedly used by Tacitus (and 
Sallust) : some, indeed, he alone employs, as infensare, redemtare ; 
in contemporary authors, also, and the writers of a later age, we find 
appellilare, adsultare, auctitare, despectare, suspectare (i. e., suspectum 
habere), emtitare, mansitare, prcetentare. But it must be well ob- 
served, that it is not always the force of the language which depends 
on these words ; but that they also often express an attempt, and that 
a vain one (as loqui casptare), and in this way, also, assist the brevity 
of the style. 

b. On single words put absolutely: Hist., iii., 55, Latium (i. e., 
jus Latii) externis dilargiri; Annal., ii., 32, saxo (Tarpeio) dejectus 
est (compare iv., 29, robur et saxum aut paricidarum poznas minitari). 
Agr., 22, nee — unquam per alios gesta avidus intercepit, that is, through 
greediness of praise and glory. Hist., v., 1, occupare principem adhuc 
vacuum, that is, not yet engaged by another, whose favor does not yet 
incline to any one; so we have mulier vacua, Annal., xiii., 44, vacuus 
adulter, xi., 12. Hist., i., 76, ne Aquitania quidem — diu mansit, that 
is, continued faithful. Annal., ii., 33, excessit Fronto (that is, went 
beyond, or digressed from, the subject before the senate), et postu- 
lavit, &c. (Compare Quintil., iii., 9, 4, egressio, vel, quod usitatius 
esse cospit, excessus.) Dial., 21, videtur mihi inter Menenios — studuisse, 
after the manner of the Silver Age, in which studere is used abso- 
lutely for the study of the art of rhetoric. 

c. On the meaning of the words themselves : as examples of which 
we may adduce rimari, introspicere, dispicere, gliscere (adolescere, 
crescere, augeri, and augere with a passive signification), scevus, atrox, 
ferox, trux, truculenius, grandis, ingens, enormis, all which words he 
uses oftener than other writers. 

III. By an unusual mode of using number, cases, adjectives, 
moods, and particles, the language is rendered more effective and 
concise. 

a. The plural, chiefly of those nouns which are called abstract, 



ITS FORCE AND BREVITY. XXXV 

expresses various kinds and modes of action: AnnaL, i., 74, formam 
vitce iniit, quam posted celebrem miseries temporum ei audacice hominum 
fecerunt; xiv., 4, ferendas parentium iracundias ; Germ., 2, ipsos 
Germanos indigenas crediderim, minimeque aliarum gentium adventibus 
et hospitiis mixtos. 

b. There is a peculiar force and brevity in the use of the genitive 
(concerning the nominative put absolutely, see below, under ellipsis, 
b. a. dolor, ira): AnnaL, xv., 36, non longam sui dbsentiam et cuncta 
in republica perinde immota ac pro spera fore (sui refers to Nero, whose 
great idea of his own importance is plain froin all accounts) ; xi., 24, 
conditor nostri Romulus; ii., 54, nostri origo (a Roman is speaking). 
The genitive plural expresses custom: AnnaL, ii., 1, Phraates— cuncta 
venerantium offi-cia ad Augustum verterat (which are wont to be offer- 
ed by those who reverence their prince) ; vi., 40, supplicia civium 
effugit (by which citizens are wont to be affected). To express the 
dispositions and peculiarities of men, the genitive is used more fre- 
quently than in other authors, and in a still more unusual way in the 
plural number: AnnaL, iv., 31, Tiberius compositus alias et velut 
eluctantium verborum. The partitive genitive is used more extens- 
ively than in other writers, and its use increases the force and per- 
spicuity of the narrative ; the same remark applies to the genitive 
joined with pronouns. AnnaL, xii., 17, navium quasdam circumvenere 
oarbari prcefecto cohortis et plerisque centurionum interfectis ; chap, 
xviii., Romanorum nemo id auctoritatis aderat, ut, &c. So we find 
id temporis, solitudinis, honoris, Hist., iv., 23, neqne unquam id ma- 
lorum — ut, &c. Ingens rerum, pr&cipuus circumveniendi, primus 
luendcB pos?ice. (See below, where Grsecisms are treated of.) The 
genitive, which is called objective, is joined with the subjective : Hist., 
iii., 10, ut proditionis ira militum; AnnaL, xii., 26, Britannici for- 
tune mmror (Cicero canum adulatio dominorum). To this class be- 
longs that very difficult passage, AnnaL, xv., 61, itur etiam in principis 
laudes repetitum venerantium; by those who reverenced the prince 
on account of his wife's restoration ; compare xi., 23, et studiis diversis 
apud principem certabatur adseverantium, non adco cegram Italiam, ut, 
&c. Compare, On the Poetical Complexion of the Style of 
Tacitus, III., a. The genitive of the passive participle in endus, 
joined with the same case of the substantive (or of the gerund with 
the case which belongs to the verb), the word causa being omitted, 
is used by no writer oftener than by Tacitus, in his strong desire of 
brevity, to express the end which any one pursues: AnnaL, ii., 59, 
JEgyptum proficiscitur cognoscendce aniiquitatis ; iv., 2, neque senatorio 
ambitu abstinebat clientes suos honoribus aut provinciis ornandi. Of 
the same kind are genitives joined with substantives' Hist., iii, , 40, 



XXXVI ON THE STYLE OF TACITUS. 

agendi tempora consultando consumsit; chap. 1., Silvanum socordem 
hello et dies rerum verbis terentem; Annal., i., 58, non hie mihi primus 
erga populum Romanum jidei et conslantice (se. ostentandec) dies. 

c. Very similar is the use of the dative, which Tacitus has employ- 
ed more frequently than any other writer, and in a more varied man- 
ner, to express an end and advantage, and that, too, in such a way 
that in this mode of speaking, also, he has respect to brevity : as it is 
commonly said, triumvir reipublicce constituendce, dividendis agris, 
comitia regi creando, so Annal., vi., 37, cum ille equum placando amni 
adornasset; chap, xliii., ubi data fides reddendce dominationi venisse, 
adlevatur animum; Hist., hi., 20, ntcm — cetera expugnandis urbibus 
(utiiia) attulissent ; Annal., xiv., 3, additurum — defunctce templum et 
aras et cetera ostentandce pietati (compare Livy, xxx., 6, quae restin- 
guendo igni for ent port antes) ; Annal., ii., 57, amid accendendis offen- 
sionibits callidi ; Annal., xiv., 59, repertus est — nudus exercitando 
corpori. Annal., xii., 46, diem loeumque fcederi accepit ; i., 51, in- 
cessit itineri et prcelio. To the same class belong obtentui, ostentui, 
inrisui, derisui, usui, metui, despectui, potui, victui, vestitui, indutui, 
visui, venatui esse, which are for the most part rare in other writers, 
For the rest, see below, where Grsecisms are treated of. 

d. The accusative is often joined with verbs which express mo- 
tion without a preposition, after the manner of the Greeks and of the 
poets; as ripam accedere (Cicero), oppidum inrumpere (Caesar, Sal- 
lust), incur sare Germaniam (Livy), involare castra (Cicero, rostra 
advolare), advolvi genua (Sallust), incidere locum, incidere aliqnem (in 
aliquem), adventare propinqua Seleucice, Annal., vi., 44 ; propinquare 
campos (Sallust), eniii aggerem (Livy), escendere suggestum (Cicero, 
Livy, and others), evader e angustias (Livy), elabi pugnam, egredi 
tentoria (Sallust), exire lubricum juventcs. This remark applies to 
the following passages, which depart from common usage : Hist., iv. r 
76, Germanos — noiv juberi, non regi; i., 16, gentibus, qu<z regnantur 
(Pliny the elder) ; Annal., hi, 39, is proximum exercitum prcesidebat ; 
Germ., 43, vertices montium — insedernnt; Annal., xi., 20, insignia 
triumplii indnlgere, i. e., concedere ; as if it were to indulge any one 
with them, and so to yield them (Juvenal, se indnlgere, i. e., permit- 
tere alicui) ; similarly Tacitus uses propvgnare, potiri, fungi, vesci, 
diss erere, f rem ere aliquam rem; but he likewise, that thus he might 
add force to the narrative, has sometimes used prepositions where 
the common language employs the accusative: Hist., iv., 48, ea de 
ccede quam verissime expediam; Germ., 34, reverentius visum de actis 
deorum credere quam scire. Concerning the ablative of substantives 
put absolutely, see below, where the participle is treated of. 

e. Brevity is promoted by adjectives, which, when joined to sub- 



ITS FORCE AND BREVITY. XXXV11 

stantives, have the force of genitives, or of other constructions, chiefly 
in expressing those things which belong to lands, cities, or men : 
AnnaL, iii., 43, Trevericus tumultus ; iv., 20, provi?icialia uxorum 
crimina', xv., 23, Actiaca religio ; iv., 3, municipalis adulter; Hist., 
iv., 15, Caiance (Caii imperatoris) expeditiones ; AnnaL, i., 6, nover- 
calia odia ; chap, vii., uxorius ambitus; senilis adoptio ; 33, muliebres 
offensiones ; iv., 2, senatorius ambitus, objectively, as chap, lxh., muni- 
cipalis ambitio; xii., 51, metus hostilis; ii., 44, vacui externo metu; 
Dial., 29, histrionalis favor. No one has oftener used this manner 
of speaking ; but many similar examples are also found in the older 
writers, as in Cicero, pro Lege Manilia, xii., Ostiense incommodum ; 
Ccbs., B. C, ii., 32, Corjiniensis ignominia; Cic. Fam., ii., 17, metus 
Parthicus, objectively. 

f. The infinitive is very frequently used by Tacitus for the sake 
of this same brevity and force. The infinitive, which is called his- 
torical, is used oftener than by other writers (as Livy and Sallust ; 
see, On the Variety, &c, V., f.); and it is joined also with parti- 
cles, and not only with demonstrative particles, as is the custom of 
other writers, but even with copulatives: Hist., iii., 10, ubi crudescere 
seditio ct a conviciis ac probris ad tela et manus transibant injici catenas 
Flaviano jubet. AnnaL, xi., 34, jam erat in adspectu Messallina — cum 
obstrepere accusator, &c. Sometimes it includes in itself velle and 
posse, or solere : Hist., v., 15, Civilis instare fortunce, Cerialis abolere 
(sc. volebat) ignominiam ; Germ., 7, in proximo pignora, unde femi- 
narum ululatus audiri, unde vagitus infantium (sc. possunt). Com- 
pare the similar use of the indicative, subjunctive, and participle be- 
low (h. i.). By no writer is the infinitive oftener joined with verbs, 
which are commonly constructed with the particles ut, ne, quominus, 
quod, or in some other manner. Thus we find used in the older 
writers also, but less frequently, hortari, impellere, prcecipere, permit- 
tore, postulare, imperare, monere, maturare, prohibere, instare, erube- 
scere, consentire, destinare, pergere, as AnnaL, xi., 4 (Livy, and others), 
pergitque — addere reos equites Romanorum ; chap, xxxiv., instabat — 
Narcissus aperire ambages. A similar use of the following words is 
adopted by the poets : suadere, incumbere, mandare, orare, urgere, 
ambiri, accingi, arcere, per sister e, dare, adigere, deesse ; as Hist., iii., 
58, nee deerat ipse voltu, voce, lacrimis misericordiam elicere (but the 
common construction is, AnnaL, xiv., 39, nee defuit Polyclitus quominus 
— incederet). Tacitus alone appears thus to have used percellere, 
perpellere, cemulari, censer e, nuntiare, denuntiare, scribere (i. e., nuntio, 
scripto imperare), impetrare, Anlicere, inducere (i. e., permovere), 
componere, pangere, obsistere {Germ., 34, obstitit Oceanus (rti) in se 
simul atque in Herculem inquiri), inlacrimare (AnnaL, ii., 71), inlacri- 



XXXV111 ON THE STYLE OF TACITUS. 

mabunt (r£>) quondam florentem — muliebri fraude cecidisse. See, On 
the Poetical Complexion, &c, III., c., y. To the verbs deferre 
and incusare, the infinitive is joined in the place of a genitive or of 
the particle quod; Annal., ii., 27, Libo Drusus defertur moliri res 
novas; iii., 38, neque minus Rhcemetalcen — incusans popularium in- 
jurias inultas sinere (compare below 7 , On Gr^ecisms). On the other 
hand, quod and ut are sometimes employed in a more unusual man- 
ner for the accusative with the infinitive : creditum quod — voluisset ; 
quibus jusserat ut — resisterent. See above, d., near the end. 

g. The indicative is often, even in the obliqua oratio, joined to 
the particle dum ; as Annal., ii., 81, Piso oravit uli traditis armis 
maneret in castello, dum Ccesar cui Syriam permitteret consalitur. 
Former writers have seldom spoken thus ; and so, in general, the in- 
dicative is found more frequently in Tacitus than in other historical 
writers, when sentences are inserted in the obliqua oratio as if they 
proceeded from the mind of the writer himself; as, Hist., iv., 16, se 
cum cohorte, cui prceerat — tumultum compressurum. No one, more- 
over, has oftener used the indicative for the subjunctive, in that kind 
of sentences which indicate that that which is implied in the condi- 
tion had almost happened, as we have it in Livy, who not unfre- 
quently speaks thus: iii., 19, nunc nisi Latini — arma sumsissent — 
deleti eramus, we were lost. Generally nisi, more rarely si, joined 
with the pluperfect, and sometimes with the imperfect, begins the 
condition, and the idea which is limited by it oftener precedes than 
follows in the imperfect, the pluperfect, and sometimes the perfect: 
Annal., xi., 10, reciperare Armeniam avebat, ni a Vibio Marso — co- 
hibitus foret ; i., 63, trudebanturque in paludem — ni Ccesar — legiones 
instruxisset ; Hist., i., 16, si immensum imperii corpus stare — sine 
rector e posset, dignus eram, a quo res publica inciperet. Annal., xi., 
37, ni ccedem ejus — properavisset, verterat pernicies in accusatorem 
(thus Cicero, prceclare vie eramus, nisi — Lepidus recepisset Antoniuin). 
Hist., i., 64, prope in proelium exarsere, ni Valens — admonuisset (thus 
Livy, ii., 10, pons iter pcene hostibus dedit, ni unus vir fmsset). In- 
stances conformed to the common usage of the language are less fre- 
quent in Tacitus. 

To the same class belongs the Enallage of the Imperfect for 
the Pluperfect, which is also used by the older writers, as Annal., 
xii., 37, si statim deditus traderer (traditus essem, fuissem), neque mea 
fortuna, neque tua gloria inclaruisset. Compare Hist., i., 48, Piso 
(interfectus) unum et tricesimum cetatis annum explebat. In the use 
of tenses in general there is great force. The historical present is 
very frequently used (take as an example of all the rest, Annal., i. 
21): following the writers of the former age, chiefly the poets, ho 



ITS FORCE AND BREVITY. XXXIX 

uses the perfect with the force of the Greek aorist, 1. To express 
custom: Agr., 9, haud semper erratfama; aliquando et elegit. 2. In 
the place of the pluperfect; Hist., i., 53, hunc juvenem Galba — legioni 
prceposuit ; mox — ut peculatorem flagilari jussit (praeposuerat, jusserat 
olim). 3. The infinitive present for the infinitive future : Annal., ii., 
34, Lucius Piso — abire se et cedere urbe—testabatur. 4. The perfect 
for the infinitive future ; iv., 28, non enim se ccedem principis — uno 
socio cogitasse (he would not have thought of it), and Cicero furnishes 
a very similar example, Phil., ii., 3. 

h. The subjunctive has not unfrequently a pregnant sense, in- 
volving posse, velle, opus esse (compare the remarks on the historical 
infinitive and the participle). We find examples of the same thing 
in Cicero, Livy, and others: Agr., 17, cum Cerialis quidem alterius 
successoris curam famamque obruisset (obrui potuisset), sustinuit quo- 
que molem Julius Frontinus; Annal., i., 11, Tiberioque etiam in rebus 
quas non occuleret (occulere vellet) — obscura verba; Agr., 22, ex 
iracundia nihil supererat; secretum et silentium ejus non timeres (non 
erat causa cur timeres). To which the common phrase turn cerneres, 
crederes, approaches very nearly. There is a similar but less frequent 
use of the indicative: Annal., iv., 40, si dubitatione Augusti movernur 
(nos moveri fas est), quanto validius est, quod, &c. ; ii., 34, Lucius 
Piso — abire se et cedere urbe (cessurum), victurum in aliquo abdito et 
longinquo rure testabatur ; simul curiam relinquebat, i. e., in eo erat ut 
relinqueret. Compare Hist., i., 46, militare otium redimebant. 

i. The participle does much to increase force of language and 
concise brevity of style, and its use is more varied in Tacitus than in 
other writers. 

a. The perfect participle of deponent verbs is put indefinitively 
(aopLVTtic) for the present participle, as ratus, veritus, and others are 
even in the ordinary language; Hist., ii., 96, in hunc modum etiam 
Vitellius apud milites disseruit pro3torianos nuper exauctoratos insecta- 
tus ; and, also, as Livy had used it before, for the future passive par- 
ticiple, which has the force of a present participle: Annal., xvi., 21, 
Nero virtutem ipsam exscindere concupivit interfecto (interficiendo) 
Thrasta Pceto. The present participle not unfrequently expresses an 
attempt (compare the remarks on the subjunctive and historical in- 
finitive) : Hist., ii., 18, retinenti duel tela intentare. It is used for the 
infinitive: Annal., xiii., 50, sublatis portoriis sequens (thus Cicero 
uses consequens, but with esse added) ut tributorum abolitio expostu- 
laretur. Likewise for a substantive : Annal., iii., 40, disserebant de 
— superbia prcesidentium, i. e., praesidum. Compare Sen., Clem., 19, 
nihil magis decorum regenti quam dementia. There is a similar brev- 
ity ((3paxv?ioyia) in the use of the future participle active : Annal., vi., 



Xl ON THE STYLE OF TACITUS. 

3, incusabatur facile toleraturus exsilium delecta Lesbo (quod facile 
toleraturus esset): Hist., ii., 74, cetera — legiones secuturce sperabantur 
(sperabantur fore nt sequerentur). The perfect passive participle is 
used for the finite tenses of the verb: Annal., vi., 32, cupitum et 
Tiberio, i. e., cupiebat; and so it takes the place of a substantive (as 
in Plautus); Annal., iv., 3, nepotes adulti moram cupitis adferebant. 
The neuter of the future passive participle is joined with the verb 
habere, after the manner of the Silver Age (like the perfect participle, 
oratum te habeo, and as we read in Cicero, cedem tuendam habere) : 
dicendum, respondendum, nubendum habere. 

j3. Oftener, and still more boldly than other writers, he uses the 
perfect passive participle in the place of an abstract substantive, 
when it refers even to inanimate objects : Annal., i., 8, cum occisus 
dictator Ccesar — pulcherrimum f acinus videretur ; Annal., vi., 27, 
genus Mi decorum, vivida senectus ; et non permissa provincia digna- 
tionem addiderat. Compare Livy, xxvii., 37, liber atas religione mentes 
iurbavit rursus nuntiatum, Frusinone infantem natum esse quadrimo 
par em. 

y. Adjectives ending in His are expressed by perfect passive parti- 
ciples; in the same way adjectives which indicate a certain ease and 
perpetuity are expressed by future active participles, and others, also, 
by future passive participles : Agr., 18, nihil arduum aut invictum 
credere (so Sallust) ; Annal., i., 28, noctem nunacem et in scelus erup- 
turam fors lenivit ; iv., 38, pulcherrimce effigies et mansurce (lasting, 
enduring); Dial., 22,Jlrmus sane paries et duraturus ; Annal., ii., 38 
(so Livy, the poets, and the writers of the Silver Age), quamvis 
domus Hortensii pudendam ad inopiam delaberetur (fcedam, turpem ; 
but it is easily perceived that the participle is more forcible) ; Hist., 
iii., 84, pudenda latebra semet occultans. 

6. Ablatives which are called absolute are used in an unusual way, 
and generally elliptically ; but examples of the same thing are not 
wanting in the older writers. The most uncommon case is that of 
the future active participle employed in this way: Hist., ii., 32, in- 
rupturis tarn infestis nationibus. Very often the participle of the sub- 
stantive verb (tiv) must be supplied, as it were, in thought, when a 
substantive is found (put absolutely) joined with an adjective or with 
a pronoun: Hist., iii., 26, incipere oppugnationem — arduum, et nullo 
juxta subsidio anceps; Annul., xi., 23, suffecisse olim indigenas con- 
sanguineis populis ; that is, when yet the nations of Italy were of the 
same race as the Romans ; Livy, xxxvi., 6, labante — disciplina et 
multorum eo statu, qui diuturnus esse non posset. The ellipsis is 
harsher when the adjective or substantive is used alone in this man- 
ner: Annal., i., 6, juxta periculosa ficta seu vera promeret, i. e., cum 



ITS FORCE AND BREVITY. xli 

juxta periculosum esset (as Livy; so dubio, incerto, sereno); AnnaL, 
iv., 5, initio ab Syria (in other passages we read initio — orto ; as, 
Hist., iii, 44, initio — a prima Adjutrice legione orto) ; iii., 28, dedit jura, 
qui s pace et principe uteremur ; i., 59, aliis gentibus ignorantia imperii 
Romani inexperta esse supplicia. Compare Ccesar, B. C, ii., 23, 
Cccsaris naves ejus fuga se receperunt. Like this is the use of the ab- 
lative of substantives in the place of an adverb, as in the older writers, 
also, casu, consensu, nomine, ratione, judicio (as if adhibito were to be 
added), and similar words are found: Annal., i., 59, non enim se pro- 
ditione — sed palam — bellum tractare ; Dial., 25, solum inter kos ar- 
bitror Brutum non malignitate nee invidia, sed simpliciter et ingenue 
judicium anirni sui detexisse ; AnnaL, xiv., 5, Acerronia imprudentia 
(cum imprudenter ageret) — navalibus telis conficitur, which serve, as 
it were, for a transition to that use of the ablative in which, oftener 
than in other writers, it is used by itself, without the participle which 
is commonly joined with it (ductus, commotus), to express a reason ; 
AnnaL, i., 57, juvenis conscientia cunctabatur ; Hist., i., 63, no?i ob 
prcedam aut spoliandi cupidine, sed furore et rabie; AnnaL, xii., 10, 
non se foederis ignaros, nee defectione a familia Arsacidarum venire. 
The perfect passive participle is put absolutely, the substantive being 
omitted much oftener in Tacitus than in the older writers: AnnaL, 
i. f 35, strictum obtulit gladium addito acutiorem esse. Thus adjecto, 
cognito, intellecto, comperto, audito, explorato, nuntiato, qucesito, pen- 
sitato, prcedicto, credito, distincto, repetito, certato, disceptato, ex- 
spectato, interdicto, are found in this writer, and, what is very rare in 
other authors, even without the addition of any words to hold the 
place of the object: AnnaL, xv., 14, et multum invicem disceptato, 
Monobazus — testis — adhibetur. 

k. The supine, which no writer uses more frequently than Tacitus, 
is used both in the accusative and ablative, for the sake of brevity ; 
for example, ultum, perditum, raptum, inlusum ire, oppugnatum ve- 
nire; pudet dictu appears to be used by Tacitus alone. Missu, ad- 
monitu alicujus, and similar phrases, are not without example in 
former writers. 

1. Great power lies in the use of prepositions when they are put, 
according to a rather unfrequent usage, for a simple case (sometimes, 
but not so often, the genitive or another case is used, contrary to the 
common mode of speech, in place of a preposition; as, Hist., i., 46, 
ne volgi largitione (hi vulgus) centurionum animos averteret). For 
example, AnnaL, xii., 25, adoptio in Domitium — festinatur; xi., 25, 
isque illi finis inscitim erga domum suamfuit (in things relating to his 
house) ; Hist., ii., 56, in omnefas nefasque avidi aut venales ; AnnaL, 
iii., 24, Silanus in nepti Augusti adulter; xv., 44, in crimine incendii 



xiii 



ON THE STYLE OF TACITUS. 



— convicii sunt; i., 12, addidit laudem de Au gusto ; Hist., i., 67, de 
ccede Galbce ignari; Annal., ii., 39, forma haud dissimili in dominum 
erat; Agr., 12, nee aliudpro nobis utilius. Compare, On the variety 
of the Style of Tacitus, V., c, and On the Poetical Complexion, 
&c, III., d., y. 

IV. Frequently, in the composition of a sentence, a deeper sense 
lies hid when, the form of expression not being perfect and precise, 
and the ordinary connection of words being neglected, the feeling 
alone with which the soul of the writer is moved, and the thought 
which he has conceived in his mind, are expressed by a structure of 
the sentence which is called pregnant. There are, indeed, such pass- 
ages in the writers of the former age also, chiefly in Livy ; but not 
so used as to form an essential feature of their style. Hist., iii., 49, 
primus Antonius nequaquam pari innocentia post Cremonam (incensam) 
agebat ; Annal., iv., 40, posse ipsam Liviam statuere, nubendum post 
Drusum (mortuum), an in penatibus isdem tolerandum haberet ; An- 
nal., i., 39, jus legationis (violatum) atque ipsius Planci — casum — 
facunde miser atur ; Agr., 18, qui classem, qui navis, qui mare ex- 
spectabant ; that is, the violence of the sea, and the aid to be gained 
from thence; Annal., ii., 40, offerant pecuniam, fidem atque pericula 
polliceantur ; that is, to share the danger; Hist., iv., 59, ceteros, ut 
quisque fiagilium navaverat (that is, had exerted himself in perpe- 
trating wickedness, as in Cicero we have navare rempublicam) 
prcemiis attollit. The prepositions in and ad are often used to form 
a pregnant sense: Annal., i., 55, dissidere hostem in Arminium ac 
Segestem ; that is, they quarreled to such a degree that some went 
over to the side of Arminius, and others to that of Segestes ; chap, 
lvii., uxor Arminii — neque victa in lacrimas (that is, so as to shed 
tears), neque voce supplex; iii., 19, ceteris ad dicendum testimonium 
exterritis' r that is, so as to utter their testimony. Compare Livy, ii., 
40, Coriolanus — consternatus ab sede sua cum ferret matri obvice com- 
plexum; and vii., 42, multitudinem ad arma consternatam esse. 

V. Nearly allied to these examples are the forms of speech to which 
the Greek grammarians have applied the terms ov/^nipLc and ^evy/ia, 
in which words that refer to different kinds of things, or to different 
persons, are joined together, and included in one and the same kind 
of construction. Compare, On the Variety, &c, V., b., near the 
end. 

a. The term Syllepsis I would apply chiefly to those passages in 
which things of an entirely different nature are mentioned in con- 
nection with each other; as, donee ira et dies permansit; quia dis- 



ITS FORCE AND BREVITY. xliil 

simulationem nox et lascivia exemerat; ubi node ac Icetitia incaluisse 
videt; mixti copiis et Icetitia; Germania a Sarmatis Dacisque mutuo 
metu aut montibus separatur ; tribuni cum terrore et armatorum catervis 
volifabant. In all these cases some affection of the mind is 60 con- 
nected with things not pertaining to the mind, that, on account of this 
very difference between the two notions, you would expect them to 
be differently expressed, either by the use of words which properly 
belong to each, or, at least, by some variation in the construction of 
the sentence. To this head I would also refer those passages where 
the preposition in, joined with an accusative, includes at the same time 
the ablative or some other sense; Germ., 46, in medium relinquam, 
i. e., in dubium vocatum relinquam in medio ; Annal., iv., 25, aderant 
semisomnos in barbaros, i. e., aderant et irruebant (see below, On the 
Poetical Complexion, &c, IIL, c, y.): and, moreover, those in 
which the same word refers to different things, all of which might be 
joined with it according to the usage of the language ; as, Hist., iii., 
41, ut — Gallias et exercitus et Germanice gentes novum que helium 
cieret. Compare, also, Hist., ii., 56, in omnefas nefasque avidi; that 
is, greedy of all things, whether it were right or wrong to desire 
them. 

b. The term Zeugma applies to those cases in which a verb that 
only suits the words immediately preceding it, and not also those 
which are more remote, is yet made to embrace the latter as well as 
the former within the same kind of construction, some similar verb 
being, as it were, implied in the one used: Annal., vi., 21, turn com- 
plexus eum Tiberius prcescium periculorum (esse fatetur) et incolumem 
fore gratatur; chap, xxiv., ut, quemadmodum nurum jiliumque fratris 
ct nepotes (interfecisset) domumque omnem ccedibus complevisset, ita, 
&c. ; Germ., 2, quoniam qui primi Rhenum transgressi ac nunc Tungri 
(vocentur), tunc Germani vocati sint; chap, xxxvi., ita qui olirn boni 
(Equique Cherusci (vocabantur) nunc inertes ac stulti vocantur ; An- 
nal., i., 58, quia Romanis Germanisque idem conducere (putabam) et 
pacem quam bellum probabam ; xiii., 56, deesse nobis (potest) terra in, 
qua vivamus, in qua moriamur non potest; Hist., i., 8, vir facundus et 
pads artibus (expertus), bellis inexpertus. But the zeugma is not al- 
ways in the verb, but sometimes, also, in a word joined to it; as, An- 
nal., ii., 73, et erant qui (Germanici) formam, cetatem, genus mortis, 
ob propinquitatem etiam locorum, in quibus interiit, magni Alexandri 
(forni89, aetati, et) fatis adcequarent. 

VI. The figure which is properly called Ellipsis is met with ex- 
tensively in Tacitus, and has very great power in augmenting the 
brevity and conciseness of his language. In the plays of the come- 



Xliv ON THE STYLE OF TACITUS. 

dians, also, and in the letters of Cicero, this form of expression is often 
met with. A few examples of each case of it will suffice. 

a. Nouns are omitted: Papia Poppcea (lex), Sulpicia (gens), 
postero (die), octingentesimo post Romam conditam (anno), ad duode- 
cimum (lapidem), laureates (litterae), Pirceeus Atticce orcc (portus), 
Apicata Sejani (uxor), pretium est ( opera?). Also, Pronouns: the 
substantive pronoun, Annal., i., 35, si vellet imperium, promtos (se) 
ostentavere : the demonstrative pronoun; iv., 60, gnarus prceferocem 
(eum esse): the relative pronoun; Annal., vi., 7, Seius Quadratics, 
(cujus) originem non repperi; chap, xxxvi., quis neque boni intellectus 
neque mali cura, sed (qui) mercede aluntur. There are examples, also, 
in older writers of the omission of the relative in those phrases which 
are placed in apposition with the principal sentence, either to afford 
an explanation or to express the intention: Annal., vi., 10, L. Piso 
pontifex, (quod) rarum in tanta claritudine, fato obiit ; i., 3, Augustus, 
subsidia dominationi (quae essent) Claudium Marcellum — Marcum 
Agrippam — extulit. 

b. Verbs are omitted. 

a. The infinitive of the Substantive Verb ; and in several passages 
this construction is such that the accusative or nominative appears 
to be simply joined with the verb on which the accusative with the 
infinitive depends: Hist., ii. 82, sufficere videbantur adversus Vitel- 
lium pars copiarum et dux Mucianus et Vespasiani nomen ac nihil 
arduum fatis {to nihil arduum esse); Annal., i., 73, deorum injurias 
dis curce. But even the indicative and subjunctive moods of this verb 
are omitted oftener than in former writers ; and the indicative chiefly 
in those passages which express the more vehement emotions of the 
mind: Annal., ii., 82, at Roma, postquam Germanici valetudo percre- 
bruit — dolor, ira; Hist., ii., 29, ut vero deformis etjlens et prater spem 
incolumis Valens processit, gaudium, miseratio , favor ; iv., 46, ut vero 
hue illuc distrahi caepere, melus per omnes et prcecipua Germanici militis 
formido. Annal., i., 65, cum — apud Romanos invalidi ignes, inter- 
rupts voces (essent), atque ipsi passim adjacerent vallo. 

/3. Posse, facere, agere, vereri, venire, ire, se conferre are 
omitted ; as, Annal., xiii., 41, Artaxata — solo aquata sunt, quia nee 
teneri (poterant), sine valido prmsidio — nee id nobis virium erat, &c. ; 
Agr., 19, nihil per libertos servosque publicce rei (actum) ; Annal., i., 
47, quos igitur anteferret ? ac (verendum) ne postpositi contumelia 
incenderentur ; xiv., 8, anxia Agrippina quod nemo afilio (veniret) ac 
ne Agcrinus quidem (rediret). 

y. Very often verbs of sense and speech are omitted; as, Agr., 
33, excepere orationem — alacres ; jamque agmina et armorum fulgores 
audentissimi cujusque procursu (conspiciebantur) ; Annal., i., 7, vul- 



ITS FORCE ^ND BREVITY. xlv 

tuque composite), ne Iceti (viderentur) excessu principis neu tristiores 
primordio, lacrimas, gaudium — miscebant ; cliap. xxxi., non unus hcec 
(dicebat) — sed multa seditionis ova vocesque. 

c. Particles are omitted by no other writer more frequently : 
Annal., xiv., 8, respicit Anicetum (a) trierarcho — comitatum; hi., 19, 
is finis fuit (in) ulciscenda Germanici rnorte; i., 12, (ex) vultu offen- 
sionem conjectaverat; xiv., 40, tdbulas (cum) lis quos memoravi et aliis 
minus inlustribus obsignat; Agr., 35, ne simul in frontem, simul et (in) 
latera suorum pugnaretur ; Annal., iii., 30, (incertum est) fato poten- 
tice raro sempiternce, an (quia) satias capit, &c. So quod, cum (fol- 
lowed by turn), licet, magis, tantum, tanto, eo, potius, alii, kinc, 
primum, modo, aliquando, ut, ita, tameri, sed are omitted in many 
places. Whole sentences are omitted before the particles nam and 
enim (just as in the Greek writers yap is used in the same way) : 
Annal., xiv., 44, at quidam insontes peribunt ! (and no wonder; nee 
mirum) nam et ex fuso exercitu — etiam strenui sortiuntur ! chap, xiv., 
nam et ejus jlagitium est qui, &c. To the same head belongs the 
figure Asyndeton, so much used by Tacitus: Hist., i., 3, futurorum 
prcesagia, Iceta, tristia, ambigua, manifest a ; chap, lxxiii., consulari 
matrimonio subnixa, et apud Galbam, Othonem, Vitellium inlcesa ; 
Annal., hi., 26, vetustissimi mortalium — sine probro, scelere coque sine 
poena — agebant ; Hist., iv., 75, eum, qui attulerat, ipsas epistolas ad 
Domitianum misit. 

VII. To this law of brevity some forms of expression appear to be 
opposed, which, however, in reality, increase the force and liveliness 
of the narration. 

a. The figure which is called by Quintilian Anadiplosis, or adjec- 
tion ; that is, the repetition or even more frequent reiteration of the 
same word (chiefly of particles) with a certain force. This is gener- 
ally so managed that the repetition answers the purpose of an omitted 
copulative conjunction, only that it has greater power: Annal., i., 7, 
miles in forum, miles in curiam comitabatur ; Hist., i., 50, rnansisse 
Caio Julio, rnansisse Ccesare Augusta victore imperium ; Annal., ii., 
82, statim credita, statim vulgata sunt; Dial., 40, apud quos omnia 
populus, omnia imperiti, omnia {lit sic dixerim) omnes poterant ; nostra 
quoque civitas, donee erravit, donee se — confecit, donee nulla fuit in 
foro pax, nulla — concordia, nulla — moderatio, nulla — reverentia, 
nullus — modus, tulit, &c. This passage is a clear proof that it was 
chiefly as an orator that Tacitus used this mode of expression, as 
there are very many examples of it in Cicero and Quintilian, but few 
in the historical writers, if you except Livy, who affects the style of 
an orator 



Xlvi ON THE STYLE OF TACITUS. 

b. Words which are commonly called synonymous, but which, in 
truth, are of such a nature that the one augments, explains, and am- 
plifies with a new sense the signification of the other. Generally, 
substantives, of which Tacitus is very fond, are constructed in this 
manner : seditio et turbce, fulgor et claritudo, dolor et ira, odium et in- 
vidia, modestia et pudor, sanguis etc cedes, vires et robur. Veteres et 
series, antiqui ac veteres, do not so much belong to this head, as they 
do not express the same things. Of adjectives, adverbs, and verbs so 
used, the number is less. The following are examples : incertum et 
ambiguum, immotum fixumque, iurbide et seditiose, temere ac fortuito, 
occultare et abdere, pollui fosdarique. 

c. The figure called in Greek ev Sea dvolv (Hendiadys), of which 
we have an example in the well-known passage, pateris libamus et 
auro. But the examples of this figure which are found in Tacitus 
(and they are very many) prove that there is a greater power in sub- 
stantives and adjectives, constructed after this manner, than in the 
usual form of speech : Agr., 16, nee ullum in barbaris scevitice genus 
omisit ira et victoria (this has greater force than ira victoris; it is 
anger and the license of victory, rather than of the conquerors) ; 
Germ., 33, supe% sexaginta milia — oblectationi oculisque ceciderunt (not 
simply oblectationi oculorum, but for our entertainment and the mere 
pleasure of the spectacle). The copulative conjunction often serves 
for an explanation : AnnaL, i., 40, incedebat muliebre et miserabile 
agmen (not miserabile mulierum agmen, but a troop consisting of 
women, and for that reason chiefly miserable). 

d. As to the examples of Pleonasm, they proceeded less from the 
genius of Tacitus than from the common usage of the Latin language, 
nor do they detract in any measure from the brevity of the discourse ; 
since none of the old writers has given offence by thus, as it were, 
expressing things abundantly. But there are also many among these 
passages of such a kind that the one word adds something to the 
meaning of the other. Thus, mare Oceanum is spoken of just as 
Rhenus amnis ; corpus in all writers (contrary to the usage of our 
language) is used pleonastically in such passages, corporis morbus, 
corporum verbera, libera corpora (liberi homines) : ante prcevidere, ante 
prcedicere are also used in the older writers; ipse solus, Germ., 38, 
and Dial., 5, and solus et unus, Dial., 34, are explained by referring 
to the Greek avrog juovoc, and also to that passage of Cicero, Verr., i. t 
2 (quod ipsis solis satis esset). 



ITS POETICAL COMPLEXION. xlvii 

ON THE POETICAL COMPLEXION OF THE STYLE OF 
TACITUS. 

That there was among the Greeks in the most ancient times a 
great resemblance between the poets and the historical writers, is 
sufficiently proved by that well-known comparison in which we are 
wont to speak of Homer, the father of epic poetry, as an author re- 
sembling Herodotus, while we call the latter the Homer of history. 
Among the Romans the plan of composing history was different ; for, 
having at first attended only to the registering of annals, and having 
thus been accustomed to set more value on the facts themselves, than 
on the expression of the feelings which move the mind in narrating 
and judging of the several events, when afterward they were led on, 
chiefly by the example of the Greeks, to aspire to more perfect skill 
in the art of writing history also, they then sought more after the 
ornaments of rhetoric than of poetry. And thus, indeed, you would 
justly mention Titus Livius as the most perfect model among all the 
Roman historians, and as the author who chiefly establishes the 
ability of the Romans for that species of composition, and, above all, 
as far excelling those writers who, like Lucau, Silius, and others, 
by doing little more than narrating events in stiff language, lessened 
the gravity of epic verse and hurt the dignity of history, while they 
in vain affected poetical language in order to ornament their records 
of bare facts. Tacitus alone, among all these writers, is worthy to be 
compared with those Greeks ; because he sought not poetical orna- 
ments from without, but was strong in the power of his own genius, 
and in the innate poetical sublimity of his mind. And as Herodotus 
presents to us the likeness of the epic, so does our author chiefly that 
of the lyric and dramatic muse, by arranging every event he records 
after the manner of a tragic poet, and in all things expressing the im- 
pulses of his own - ' mind, nay, even the inmost feelings of his soul. 
When, as we read his annals and histories, we see the efforts made 
by men worthy of a better age against the cruelty of princes and the 
common corruption of manners falling fruitless to the ground, but yet 
perceive, at the same time, that there can be good and brave men even 
under evil rulers ; when we behold fortune, fate, nay, the gods ihem- 
selves, ruling in a wonderful and ever inscrutable manner the divers 
chances of human events; as we contemplate in his books of annals 
the fatal extinction of the Julian race, and in his histories the mighty 
efforts to establish anew an empire already desolate and falling ; do 
we not seem to ourselves to be reading some tragic composition, such 
as those of iEschylus, Sophocles, Euripides? is not the mournful 
image of a Niobe presented before our eyes 1 are not our souls per- 



Xlviii ON THE STYLE OF TACITUS. 

vaded with a kind of horror as at the sight of a Laocoon attempting 
in vain to burst the frightful knots of serpents ? Surely it is a design 
worthy of the dignity of the Roman Empire, to expend all the re- 
sources of so profound a skill in setting forth what was the fate and 
what the chances of events, through which the power of a " people, 
now for a long time most mighty, destroyed itself;" what were the 
vices both of citizens and rulers, which provoked the vengeance and 
punishment of the immortal gods, so that that mighty imperial struc- 
ture began to fall to ruin. Behold a second Scipio, not sitting among 
the ruins of proud Carthage when she had just fulfilled her destiny, 
but on the soil of Rome herself, even now sinking to destruction, and 
prophesying with gushing tears the ruin of his country ! See him 
meditating, not with a factitious and far-fetched effort, but under 
aspects which to such a mind present themselves spontaneously, upon 
the image of his country, before so excellent and so perfect in all its 
parts, now distorted and ruined ! And we see that he practiced no 
less art than Sophocles used in hi3 divine tragedies, in arranging 
every several part, and assigning its own place to each. After pre- 
fixing, both to the histories and to the books of annals, a prologue, in 
which not only the argument of the whole work, but its entire plan 
and character, are briefly shadowed forth, he then leads the minds 
of his readers, now with a quickened, and now with a slackened and 
restrained pace, through all the stages of the action, which are meted 
out in a manner fit and suitable to the things themselves and to the 
laws of art; and he so depicts the natures and characters of men, and 
of the actions performed by them ; he so portrays real life, even in 
its most varied and troubled forms — whether he writes of battles and 
the storming of cities, or whether of things done in the palaces of 
princes, and the houses of private men — that all these things we seem 
to behold with our own eyes, and to be present at them ourselves. 
But these are matters of such a kind that their nature can be less easily 
described than conceived in the mind itself. We shall proceed to 
illustrate, by examples, those points alone which belong to the poetical 
form of the language itself. 

I. Among these examples, the collocation of the words them- 
selves first claims our attention. For, in some passages in Tacitus, 
either whole or half verses are found: Annal., i., 1, Urbem Romam a 
principio reges habuere ; xv., 73, donee consensu patrum deterritus est, 
ne; Germ., 18, bellorum casus putet, ipsis incipientis ; chap, xxxii., 
prcecellunt ; nee major apud Cattos peditum laus ; chap, xxxix., au- 
guriis patrum et prisca formidine sacram. But Cicero has already 
observed that verses often fall, also, from the pens of writers through 



ITS POETICAL COMPLEXION. xllX 

carelessness, of which there are examples in Livy and many other 
authors: Livy, moreover, as well as Tacitus, begins the preface to 
his books of histories with an hexametrical exordium. And, indeed, 
this circumstance, especially when two principal writers agree in it, 
I can not believe to have fallen out at a venture ; but in the case of 
Tacitus especially, to whose language gravity {cre/Ltvov) is said pecul- 
iarly to belong, I should suppose, not, indeed, that he took pains to 
frame a verse in the very outset of his work, but that he retained 
one which had spontaneously offered itself to his mind. 

II. Single Words are used poetically. 

a. Words in themselves poetical, and belonging to a former age : 
desolatus, eburnus, exspes, fatiscere, grandcevus, mersare, prcesagus, 
secundare, &c. And of a later age : adcursus (us), distinctus (us), 
honorus. Simple verbs used for compounds : asperare, celerare, cire, 
flere (aliquid), gravescere, jutus, propinquare, radere, solari, suescere, 
temnere, of a later ageflammare. 

b. Words poetical in their signification (chiefly those so used by 
metonyme) : cur a de libro, demissus = originem trahens, fides, Jiducia 
applied to a man who inspires confidence {Hist., ii., 4, 5. Titus — in- 
gens rerum fiducia accessit et prcecipua concordice fides Titus), flagi- 
tium = efflagitatio, puerperium = partus, sinister = malus, species = 
acies oculorum),* triste used as a substantive; in the poets of the 
later age : annus == proventus auni, transigere = transfigere, transmit- 
tere = transire silentio. Abstract terms are used for concrete 
much oftener than in other prose writers: auxilia, vigilice, militia 
(= milites, Hist., hi., 18, q?ws militice legionariis — &quabant ; com- 
pare Plin., Hist. Nat., iv., 27, Glessaria a succino militice — by the 
soldiers, militibus nostris — appellata, a barbaris Australia), delectus {in 
civitates remittere, Hist., iv., 71), matrimonia, conjugium, necessitu- 
dines, adfinitates, amicitia, dominationes, nobilitates, remigium, clientele 
servitium, exsilium {Hist., i., 2, plenum exsiliis mare), antiquilas, con- 
sidtationes, mors, ingenia {pavida, servilia). Substantives are put 
for adjectives, spectator populus, domus regnatrix, corruptor animus, 
victor exercitus, bellator equus (according to the Greek form of ex- 
pression). Adjectives are also used in the place of substantives, 
see III., b. 

* Annal., xi., 31, sive ceperat ea (tempestatem; but Tacitus appears to hare 
written ea designedly to express a less conspicuous object ; any thing of the kind) 
species (ejus). Compare Livy, xxxvii., 24, spectaculum capessite oculis. So Lucret., 
iv., 242, speciem quo vertimus, and oftener ; Vitruv., ix., 4, si tantis intervallis nostra 
species potest id animadvertere, and in other places. 

3 



1 ON THE STYLE OF TACITUS. 

III. Poetical Structure of the Words : Gr^cisms* (some 
words have also a Greek form: Dial., 31, grammatice, musice, ei 
geometrice. But Tacitus has never followed the practice of his age, 
in mixing words belonging to the Greek tongue with Latin words). 

a. In the use of the Cases. Concerning the ellipsis in the use 
of the Genitive, see, On the Brevity, &c, VI., a. : Apicata Sejani 
(uxor), as the Greeks say 'AM^avdpog 6 QiXittttov ; Pirceeus Atticce 
orce, (portus) ; as, slg rrjv ^lTilttitov, sc. x&pav. Annul., xv., 14, adje- 
cisse deos (dignwn Arsacidarum) ut simul, &c, atjiov tcjv 'Ape. Com- 
pare Cic.f Balb., 2, mihi quidem dignum rei videtur. Concerning the 
peculiar use of the partitive genitive (ol (ppovt/LLOt ruv avOpunov), see, 
On the Brevity, &c, III., b. The genitive is nowhere found more 
frequently than in Tacitus joined to relative adjectives and partici- 
ples (as anatg cippevov naldcov), and the same may be said of the Ac- 
cusative, where it is used to apply or restrict the discourse to any 
object (nodag coKvg, navra evdaifiovelv, ra 6e uTiXa). A few examples 
will suffice : ingens animi, diversus animi, fallax amicitice, vetus operis 
ac laboris, morum non spernendus, prcecipuus circumveniendi, primus 
luendce pcence, anxius potential, virtutum sterilis, insolens obsequii, mani- 
festus delicti, ferox linguae, atrox odii; contectus humeros, nudus 
brackia, adlevari animum, cetera degener, cetera egregius. The Da- 
tive is put for the genitive after the manner of the poets : Hist., iii., 
5, Rcetia, cui Porcius procurator erat ; Annal., xiii., 23, cui (cujus) 
pernuptias Antonice gener erat (Cic, Demochares — qui fuit Demostheni 
sororis Jilius) ; Annal., i., 3, Augustus subsidia dominationi — Marcellum 
— Agrippam — extulit ; ii., 64, immittere latronum globos, exscindere 
castella, causas bello; chap. 46, missus tamen Drusus — pad jirmalor; 
iii., 14, vario rumor e, custos saluti an mortis exactor sequeretur. For 
a preposition : Annal., xi., 37 , florenti Jilice haud concors; Hist., iv., 
52, Domitiano mitigatus, i. e., mitigatus in Domitiani animo. There 
is a brevity (fipaxvhoyia) in the use of the dative of the participle : 
Annal., xiv. 49,, optimum quemque jurgio lacessens et respondenti re- 
ticens / that is, keeping silence if any one answered. There is a very 
close resemblance to this in the use of the dative absolute, borrowed by 
the Latins from the Greeks (thus Herodotus: a?,7jdu Adycj ^pea^ei^), 
Agr., 11; Germ., 6, in universum cestimanti (Curt.); Hist., iv., 17, 
vere reputantibus, Galliam suismet viribus concidisse. Compare Livy, 
xxvi., 24, urbium Corcyrce tenus ab JEtolia incipienti solum tectaque — 
JEtolorum esse (so Herodotus, ii., 29, and 'ETietyavrivnc nokiog iovri 
avavrig ken x<*>ptov). On the similar use of the genitive, see, On 
the Brevity, &c, III., b. Annal., xiv., 61, and xi., 23. The dative, 

* But many, also, of the peculiarities explained above, may be considered as 
borrowed from tbe Greek language. 



IT3 POETICAL COMPLEXION. ll 

wliicli is called subjective, is used more frequently by no writer than 
by Tacitus with passive verbs, in place of a preposition with the ab- 
lative. In this circumstance the Greeks have a still greater variety 
and pliability in their language, as is clear from the fact that, besides 
this dative (X&sktcll \iol, kizpaTrero clvtolc ra rfjg TroAewc) they use 
not only the preposition vno, but others also, Tzpoc, izapd, ek. Among 
the Latins, the poets have not unfrequently used this form of speech ; 
as Ovid, Barbarus hie ego sum, quia non intelligor ulli; but Cicero 
too, Livy, and others use it. So Tacitus, Annal., i., 1, veteris popuh 
Romani prosper a vel adversa claris scriptoribus memorata sunt; iv., 6, 
frumenta — cetera publicorum fructuum societatibus equitum Roman- 
orum agitabantur ; xi., 29, Callistus jam mihi circa necem Caii Ccesaris 
narratus. Concerning the accusative, see above, On the Brevity, 
&c, III., d. 

b. In the use of Adjectives.* 

a. In the place of Substantives are put neuter adjectives, most- 
ly joined with the genitive (the singular of the adjective being used 
less often than the plural), as well by Livy and other writers as by 
the poets and Tacitus (to, KaXd, ra dvaynaia, to Terpafijuevov rdv 
j3ap6dpcjv, to noTilov ttjc oTpaTirjc, darjfia /3ofjc, i- e., acyfiog jSorj, tuv 
(3ocJv KaTaKSKp7}fJ.vi(7fiEva). Anna!., i., 1, populi Romani prosper a vel 
adversa; iii., 40, per conciliabula et coztus seditiosa disserebant ; adv., 
15, quin et fe mince inlustres informia meditari. Annal., iii., 59, diverso 
terrarum distineri ; ii., 39, adire municipia obscuro diei. Annal., iv., 
23, incerta belli metuens; as, ambigua, dubia, fortuita, intuta, certa, 
avia, inaccessa, angusta, ardua, lubrica, edita, obstantia, opportuna, 
amozna, plana, subjecta, aperta, profunda, secreta, adversa, sceva, 
subita, occulta, operta, idonea, vana, inania, falsa, iacita, longinqua, 
prima, extrema, summa, prcecipua, reliqua, cetera, alia, pauca, multa, 
are found in Tacitus, joined with the genitive plural. 

(3. Adjectives are veiy often used by him, as well as by the poets, 
after the manner of the Greeks (alvd for alvtic, evdov iravvvxtoc, i. e., 
vvktl, SevTepaloc dfyiKETo, i. e., devTspa 7][iF.pcL), for Adverbs, when 
greater power is thereby given to the discourse: Annal., iv., 12, 
domum Germanici revirescere occulti Icetabantur ; xii., 12, si citi ad- 
venissent; v., 1, aufert marito (Liviam) — adeo procerus, ut, &c. ; 
Agr., 19, a se suisque orsus primam domum- suam coercuit ; Annal., iii., 
52, adversum luxum, qui inmensum proruperat ; iv., 60, Tiberius torvus 
aut falsum renidens vultu ; chap. 28, innocentem Cornutum et falsa ex- 
territum. 

y. The use of the Preposition Ex for Adjectives and Ad- 

* Many points, also, in the mode of comparison which are borrowed from the 
Greek language, have been noticed above. (See, On the Variety, &c, V., d.) 



Ill ON THE STYLE OF TACITUS. 

verbs is very common in Tacitus. This mode of expression the 
poets have generally used after the manner of the Greeks (e/c tov kfx- 
(pavioc, did t&xovc, kv rcj (pavepfi, and also in the plural number, 
which is never thus used by Latin writers, ek t&v dvvartiv), and some 
examples of this have even passed into the language of common dis- 
course ; as, ex improviso, ex inopinato, ex insperato, ex composite), ex 
prceparato, ex cequo, ex occulto, in Livy, ex tulo, ex vano, ex super- 
vacuo : many instances are found in the writers of the Silver Age ; 
as, ex abundanti, ex continenti (continuo), ex pari, ex toto ; in Tacitus, 
ex honesto, ex integro, ex vano, ex facili, ex adfluenli, ex cequo in many 
places. And on a like principle, per silentium, periram, per licentiam, 
in aperto, in levi, in neutrum, in mollius, in deterius. See, On the 
Brevity, &c, VII., d., at the end. 

c. In the use of the Verb. Concerning the indefinite (aoristical) 
use of the tenses, see, On the Brevity, &c, III., g., i., and con- 
cerning the use of the infinitive, ibid., III., f. The infinitive is used 
by attraction with the nominative in place of the accusative ; as in 
that passage of Virgil, sensit medios delapsus in hostes; Hist., iv., 55, 
ipse e majoribus suis hostis populi Romani quam socius (esse) jactabat; 
in like manner, Herod., viii., 137, tov fxtaddv ftyaoav dLnaiOL elvai 
airoladovTeg ovru ktJLevat. On the other hand, the accusative, instead 
of the nominative, is joined with the infinitive, after the Greek cus- 
tom (ecjyn elvat arparnyov = CTparnyoc) : Hist., iv., 52, Titum — orasse 
dicebatur; i., 90, Trachali ingenio Otkonem uti credebatur ; Germ., 
33, Angrivarios immigrasse narratur. Very seldom dicitur ; more fre- 
quently, in Livy, creditur, proditur, traditur, fertur, nuntiatur, are 
found thus used. The infinitive supplies the place of the substantive 
and gerund, after the usage of the Greeks, which has been received 
by the poets, and in a few examples, also, by the writers of the former 
age. 

a. For the nominative: AnnaL, xv., 20, culpa quam pozna tempore 
prior, emendari quam peccare posterius est; Hist., ii., 82, snfficere 
videbantur adversus Vitellium pars copiarum et dux Mucianus et Ves- 
pasiani nomen ac nihil arduum (esse) fatis. 

(3. For the genitive, and sometimes for the ablative : AnnaL, vi., 
12, dato sacerdotibus negotio — vera discernere; Dial., 3, etiamsi non 
novum tibi ipse negotium importasses — adgregare (Ccesar, B. G., vii., 
71, consilium — dimittere); Agr., 8, peritus {tov) obsequi eruditusque 
(rw) utilia honestis miscere ; AnnaL, iv., 52, modicus dignationis et 
quo quo facinore properus clarescere (a case without example, even in 
the poets); AnnaL, ii., 57, atrox ac dissentire manifestus; Agr., 25, 
paratu magno, majorefama, uti mos est de ignotis, u oppugnasse ultro," 
castella adorti. Compare Livy, iv., 31, civitas vinci insueta, 7t62,ic 
XahenT] ?ia6eiv, kmTrjdeioe irotelv, diafyzpuv t£) Tifirjc bpeyeodai. 



ITS POETICAL COMPLEXION. liU 

y. For the accusative, and sometimes for the dative, and for the 
former chiefly when a substantive in the same case goes before : An- 
nal., xiii., 15, quia nullum crimen neque jubere ccedem fratris palam 
audebat (compare Cic, Tusc, i., 26, ut Jovi bibere ministraret) ; An- 
nal., iv., 56,factus natura et consueludine exercitus (r<p) velare odium 
fallacibus blanditiis ; Dial., 10, tamquam minus obnoxium sit (tcj) 
offendere poetarum quam oratorum studium. Compare Xen., Apol. 
Socr., 14, "tva hn \luXKov — aitic&Gi t& e/is TeTLfifjodat, vtto Satfiovcov. 
See above, On the Brevity, &c, III., f. There is another Graecism 
in those cases where the particle (&gts, so as) is implied in the in- 
finitive : Annal., xi., 1, non extimuisse contionem populi Romani, fateri, 
gloriamque facinoris ultro peter e; xii., 50, atrox hiems, seu parum 
provisi commeatus et orta ex utroque tabes percellunt Vologesen omit- 
tere pi-wsentia. Compare Thucydides, iii., 6, rrjc fiev -&a2,aocr}g elpyov, 
[it] xpycdac, M.vrt7n]vaiovg. 

The Subjunctive, after the manner of the Greek optative, is used 
both by other writers and by Tacitus to imply that a thing has been 
done frequently : Annal., i., 27, postremo deserunt tribunal, ut quis 
— occurreret, manus intentantes; chap. 44, si tribuni, si legio indus- 
triam — adprobaverant, retinebat ordines : ubi avaritiam aut crudeli- 
tatem consensu objectavissent, solvebatur militia (ovc fiev 16 oc evtclktoc 
— iovrac — E7r?]V€L). Concerning the use of the Participle, compare, 
On the Brevity, &c, III., i. Evidently after the Greek fashion, 
which is adopted also by Sallust, we read in Tacitus invito, cupienti, 
volenti mihi est, for nolo, cupio, volo : Annal., i., 59, ut quibusque 
helium invitis aut cupientibus erat, a%do/i£voLc r) qdofievoLg rjv ; Agr., 18, 
ut quibus bellum volentibus erat. We may find an explanation of this 
in the passages in which volens has the same sense as gratum (just as 
gnarus is used for notus): Hist., iii., 52, Muciano volentia rescripsere 
(Sallust, volentia ; lebi facturus videbatur) ; and Annal., ii., 4, Ario- 
b irzanem — volentibus Armeniis prcefecit (compare Soph., CEd. Col., 
1 505, ttoOovvtl 7T povfydvnc) ; Sail., Jug., 76, posnas ipsi volentes pepen- 
dere. Add, lastly, the following phrases, which are actually translated 
from the Greek, and which are common in the poets, Sallust, Livy, 
and others, namely, est for licet, and amare for solere : Germ., 5, est 
videre apud illos argentea vasa; Annal., iv., 9, utferme amat posterior 
adulatio ; eon, (piXel. 

d. In the use of Particles. 

a. Vereor is omitted before the particle ne (see above, on the 
ellipsis of verbs), as in Greek authors we have fir) rovro aAAwc IxV' 
The particle cum is often wanting (as in Ovid) ; Annal., iii., 64, quin- 
decimviri septemviris simul ; iv., 55, Hypcepeni Trallianique Laodicenis 
ac Magnetibus simul; vi., 9, Appius Silanus Scauro Mamerco simul. 
Compare Horn., Od. } iv., 723, baaai uot ouov rpdcfrev fid' eyevovro. 



llV ON THE STYLE OF TACITUS. 

(3. Annal., xvi, 9, donee a centurione — tamquam in pugna caderet 
(so Suetonius, Otho, 5, ab hoste cadere ; Nepos de regions, iii., 3, periit 
a morbo) — d-avelv vtco tlvoc. Annal., ii., 47, Magnetes a Sipylo, as on 
coins we read Mayvj]Gta and 1,itcv?iov. Compare Livy,\., 50, Turnus 
Herdonius ab Aricia (Aricinus) ferociter in absentem Tarquinium erat 
invectus. 

y. The preposition in is often nsed to give greater force where, 
from the common form of speech, you would expect ad, or simply a 
case of the noun, or some other construction : in id, in hoc, elg tovto 
(Livy, Velleius, and the poets) ; in majus celebrare (Livy and Saliust), 
and the like phrases, km to fxel^ov Koafxelv, in unum consulere, elg jiiav 
fiovkeveiv, in unum cedere, elg ev epx^odat (Livy, Saliust), in longum, 
in presens, elg topag, elg to Trapov (Livy, Saliust, Cicero), in tantum, in 
vulgus, in cetera, in diversum; Annal., xii., 35, plus vulnerum in nos et 
pierce que ccedes oriebantur ; ii., 47, asperrima in Sardianos lues ; chap. 
39, forma liaud dissimili in dominum erat; as the Greeks say, elg 
TzdvTa, elg ayadbv elizelv, eg (po6ov, elg dna eowev. Annal., iv., 25, 
aderant semisomnos in barbaros (see above, On the Brevity, &c, 
V., a., under syllepsis) ; as eg d-povovg eC,ovTO, k^dvrj "Xlg elg odov. 

6. We find answering to the Greek phrases, ol TOTe avdpo7TOC, rj 
e^a'upvng fxeTdaTaatg, Agr., 25, imiversce ultra gentes ; Annal., xiii., 
41, cuncta extra, tectis tenus, sole inlustria fuere (compare Livy, xxiii., 
27, omni circa agro potiuntur) ; Annal., i., 27, is ante alios cetate et 
gloria belli (excelling others); Hist., ii., 76, tua ante omnes experientia; 
v., 12, pro-priique muri labore et opere ante alios. 

e. Adverbs are joined with the substantive verbs instead of ad- 
jectives : longe, velocius, frustra, impune est, as in Greek authors we 
have drjv, E/caaTaTco elvac ; and bene, male, recte est, are the common 
forms of expression in speaking of the state of a person's health. 

IV. The Form of Expression itself is Poetical; as, equestris 
procella, aliquid ultra mortale gaudium accipere, arbiter rerum, dira 
quies, in limine belli, conjux sex partus enixa, trucidati stmt sine nostro 
sanguine, sera juvenum Venus, marcentem pacem nutrire, vita populi 
Rornani per incerta maris et tempestalum quotidie volvitur. This 
poetical language consists generally in the following particulars : 

a. Inanimate Objects are spoken of as having life, whence he 
not only speaks thus of animals : Germ., 9, ne armentis quidem suus 
honor aut gloria frontis, but, also, still more boldly, Annal., i , 79, 
quin ipsum Tiberim nolle prorsus accolis fluviis orbatum minore gloria 
jluere ; xv., 15, flumen — vi equorum perrupere (as if it were a hostile 
army); Germ., 40, est in insula Oceani castum nemus; Hist., v., 6, 
prcecipuum montium Libanum erigit (Judaea), mirum dictu tantos inter 



ITS POETICAL COMPLEXION. lv 

ardor es opacum fidumque nivibus ; idem amnem Jordanen fundit alit- 
que; Germ., 27, sepulcrum ccespes erigit ; AnnaL, xv., 62, lacrimas 
eorum modo sermone, modo intentior in modum coercentis ad Jirmitu- 
dinem revocat ; Hist., i., 17, circumsteterat interim palatium publica 
exspectatio magni secreti impatiens ; chap, ii., opus adgredior opimum 
casibus, atrox prcsliis, discors seditionibus, ipsa etiam pace scevum ; An- 
naL, i., 31, multa seditionis ora vocesque ; chap. 61, incedunt mosstos 
locos, at the end : ubi infelici dextra — mortem invenerit. 

b. The Prosopopoeia of Time is very frequent: AnnaL, vi., 51, 
morum quoque tempora illi diversa : egregium vita famaque (tempus), 
quoad privatus — fuit; occultum ac subdolum fingendis viHutibus, donee 
Germanicus ac Drusus superfuere ; idem inter bona malaque mixtus, 
&c, whence it is clear that in these things, also, variety has been 
aimed at; Germ., 30, disponere diem, vallare noctem; Hist., i., 80, 
obsequia meliorum nox abstulerat ; AnnaL, xiii., 17, nox eadem necem 
Britannici et rogum conjunxit ; chap. 33, idem annus plures reos ha- 
buit ; iv., 15, idem annus alio quoque luetic Ccesarem adjicit alterum 
ex geminis Drusi liberis extinguendo ; i., 54, idem annus novas cceri- 
monias accepit addito sodalium Augustalium sacerdotio ; Agr., 22, 
tertius expeditionum annus novas gentes aperuit; Hist., v., 10, proxi- 
mus annus civili bello intentus ; AnnaL, iv., 31, quern vidit sequens 
cetas prcepotentum, venalem ; xv., 38, fessa aut rudis pueritice atas ; xiv., 
33, si quos imbellis sexus aut fessa &tas — attinuerat. Livy has not im- 
frequently used this form of expression, as well as Velleius, Pliny 
the elder, Silius, and others; compare Cicero, Brut., 92, interim me 
qucestorem Siciliensis excepit annus. 

C. TO THE NAMES OF NATIONS AND OF MEN ARE POETICALLY JOINED 
VERBS, WHICH PROPERLY REFER TO THE APPELLATIVE TO WHICH 
THOSE NAMES SHOULD HAVE BEEN ADDED IN THE GENITIVE, Or Cer- 
tainly verbs are made to refer to men which, in their common use, 
are only joined to appellatives and abstract nouns : AnnaL, ii., 25, 
ipse majoribus copiis Marsos inrumpit ; chap. 56, Cappadoces in for- 
mam provincice redacti Quintum Veranium legatum accepere; xii., 
58, tributum Apamensibus terrce motu convolsis — remissum; Agr., 22, 
vastatis usque ad Taum — nationibus ; Hist., ii., 87, nee colonice modo 
aut municipia congestu copiarum, sed ipsi cultores arvaque, maturis 
jam fru gibus, ut hostile solum vastabantur ; AnnaL, ii., 25, populatur, 
exscindit non ausum congredi hostem; xii., 49, dum socios magis quam 
hostes prcedatur ; xvi., 13, in qua (urbe) omne mortalium genus vis 
pestilentice depopulabatur ; Agr., 41, tot militares viri cum tot cohorli- 
bus expugnati et capti (where Walch, comparing the expression to 
Thucydides's use of kunoXLopneZv, quotes Justin., iii., 4, 11, expugnatis 
veteribus incolis ; Lncret., iv., 1008, reges expugnare; Livy, xxiii., 30, 



Ivi ON THE STYLE OF TACITUS. 

obsessos fame expugnavit; to which add, Curt., iii., 1, 7, se scire inex- 
pugnabiles esse; ix., 10, 7, tria simul agmina populabantur Indos — 
maritimos Ptolemceus, ceteros ipse rex et db alia parte Leonnatus ure- 
bant; Livy, xxviii., 6, jinitimos depopulabantur ; Epit., 47, lllyrios — 
vastaverant). Annal., xii., 25, se quoque accingeret juvene partem 
curarum capessituro ; iii., 63, Milesios Dareo rege niti; iv., 19, hos 
corripi, dilato ad tempus Sabino, placitum ; Hist., ii., 71, Valerium 
Marinum destinatum a Galba consulem distulit ; chap. 95, magna et 
misera civitas, eodem anno Othonem Vitelliumque passa; iv., 52, amicos 
tempore, fortuna — imminui, transferrin desinere (that is, their atten- 
tions, their very friendship); Annal., iv., 42, Merulam — albo senatorio 
erasit; vi., 42, civitas — conditoris Seleuci retinens (that is, of his insti- 
tutions). Compare Quintil., viii., 6, 25, hominem devorari (that is, 
his goods), Plinius, Hist. Nat., vi., 24, regi — percontanii postea nar- 
ravit Romanos et Ccesarcm; vii., 2, supra hos extrema in parte mon- 
lium Trispithami Pygmceique narrantur. And in the same way the 
older writers also use loqui, narrare. 



C. CORNELIUS TACITUS 



DE 



SITU, MORIBUS ET POPULIS GERMANISE. 



SUMMARY. 
Chap. I. Situation of Germany. II. Its inhabitants probably indigenous. 
— Authors of the race. — Origin of the name. III. A Hercules among 
the Germans also. — Baritus. — Altar of Ulysses. IV. The Germans an 
unmixed race. — Their physical conformation. V. Nature of the country. 
— Contains no gold, no silver. — These metals held in no estimation. 

VI. Arms of the Germans : their cavalry, infantry, mode of warfare. 

VII. Their kings, leaders, priesthood. VIII. Spirit displayed by their 
women, and respect shown them. — Veleda. — Aurinia. IX. Their deities, 
sacred rites. — No images of their divinities. X. Auspices, lots. — Pre- 
sages derived from horses, from captives. XI. Public deliberations and 
assemblies. XII. Accusations, punishments, dispensing of justice. 
XIII. Youths adorned with a shield and framea ; companions of the 
chieftains, their valor and wide-spread reputation. XIV. Warlike spirit 
and pursuits of the race. XV. Season of peace, hunting, indolence. — 
Presents bestowed upon the chieftains. XVI. No cities. — Their vil- 
lages, dwellings ; caves serving as a retreat in winter, and as recepta- 
cles for grain, &c. XVII. Attire of the men, of the women. XVIII. 
Matrimonial engagements strictly adhered to. — Dowry brought by the 
husband. XIX. Purity of female morals. — Punishment of adultery. 
XX. Mode of rearing children.— Laws of succession. XXL The enmi- 
ties as well as friendships espoused of one's father or near relation. — 
Price of homicide. — Hospitality. XXII. Bathing, mode of life, quar- 
rels of the intoxicated, deliberations at banquets. XXIII. Drink. — 
Food. XXIV. Public spectacles. — Fondness for gambling. XXV. 
Slaves, freedmen. XXVI. Taking interest unknown. — Agriculture. — 
Seasons. XXVII. Funerals, tombs, mourning. XXVIII. Institutions 
and customs of individual tribes. — Early migrations of the Gauls into Ger- 
many. — The Helvetii, Aravisci, Boii, Osi. — Tribes of German origin : the 
Treveri, Nervii, Vangiones, Triboci, Nemetes, Ubii. XXIX. The B atavi, 
a branch of the Catti.— The Mattiaci.— The tithe-lands. XXX., XXXI. 
Country of the Catti, their physical character, military discipline, mar- 
tial vows. XXXII. The Usipii, the Tencteri : their superiority in cav- 
alry. XXXIII. Settlements of the Bructeri seized upon and occupied 

A 



)l C. CORNELIUS TACITUS 

by the Chamavi and Angrivarii. XXXIV. The Dulgibini, Chasuari, 
Frisii. XXXV. The Cauci, distinguished for their love of peace, 
their justice, and other virtues. XXXVI. The Cherusci and Fosi, con- 
quered by the Catti. XXXVII. The Cimbri. — Roman overthrows. — ■ 
The Germans triumphed over rather than conquered. XXXVIII. The 
Suevi, their numbers, their customs. XXXIX. The Semnones, religious 
rites, human sacrifices. XL. The Langobardi, Reudigni, Aviones, An- 
gli, &c. — The worship of Hertha common to all. XL I. The Hermun- 
duri. XLII. The Narisci, Marcomanni, duadi. XLIII. The Marsigni, 
Gothini, Osi, Buri, &c. — The Naharvali; their deities, termed Alci; 
the Gotones, Hugii ; Lemovii. XLIV. The Suiones, powerful with 
their fleets. XLV. The Mare Pigrum (Frozen Ocean). — The ^Estyi, 
worshipers of the mother of the gods, gatherers of amber. — Over the 
Sitones a female reigns. XL VI. The Peucini, Venedi, Fenni. — Their 
savage character and poverty. — The Hellusii and Oxiones, fables re- 
specting them. 

I. Gtermania omnis a Gallis Raetisque et Pannoniis 
Rheno et Danubio fluminibus, a Sarmatis Dacisque mutuo 
metu aut montibus, separatur. Cetera Oceanus ambit, 
latos sinus et insularum immensa spatia complectens, nu- 
per cognitis quibusdam gentibus ac regibus, quos bellum 
aperuit. Rhenus, Eaeticarum Alpium inaccesso ac prae- 
cipiti vertice ortus, modico flexu in Occidentem versus, 
septentrionali Oceano miscetur. Danubius, molli et cle- 
menter edito montis Abnobae jugo effusus, plures populos 
adit, donee in Ponticum mare sex meatibus erumpat; sep- 
timum enim os paludibus hauritur. 

II. Ipsos Germanos indigenas crediderim, minimeque 
aliarum gentium adventibus et hospitiis mixtos ; quia nee 
terra olim, sed classibus, advehebantur, qui mutare sedes 
quaerebant: etinmensus ultra, utque sic dixerim, adversus 
Oceanus raris ab orbe nostro navibus aditur. Quis porro, 
praeter periculum horridi et ignoti maris, Asia aut Africa 
aut Italia relicta, Germaniam peteret, informem terris, 
asperam coelo, tristem cultu adspectuque, nisi si patria 
sit ] Celebrant carminibus antiquis (quod unum apud illos 
memoriae et annalium genus est) Tuisconem Deum, terra 
editum, et Jilium Mannum, originem gentis conditoresque. 



DE GERMAN I A. CAP. II.— IV. 3 

Manno tres filios adsignant, e quorum nominibus proximi 
Oceano Ingcsvones, medii Henninones, ceteri Istcevones vo- 
cenlur. Quidam autem, licentia vetustatis, plures Deo or- 
tos, pluresque gentis adpellationes, Marsos, Gambrivios, 
Suevos, Vandalios adfirmant : eaque vera et antiqua nomina, 
Ceterum Germanics vocabulum recens et nuper additum ; 
quoniam, qui primi Rhenum transgressi Gallos expulerint, 
ac nunc Tungri, tunc Germani vocati sint. Ita nationis 
nomen non gentis evaluisse paullatim, ut omnes, primum a 
victore ob metum, mox a seipsis invento nomine f Germani 
vocarentur. 

III. Fuisse apud eos et Herculem memorant, primumque 
omnium virorum fortium ituri in proelia carmnt. Sunt 
illis haec quoque carmina, quorum relatu, quem baritum 
vocant, accendunt animos,futur9equepugnse fortunam ipso 
cantu augurantur : terrent enim trepidantve, prout sonuit 
acies ; nee tarn vocis ille, quam virtutis concentus videatur. 
Adfectatur prsecipue asperitas soni et fractum murmur, 
objectis ad os scutis, quo plenior et gravior vox repercussu 
intumescat. Ceterum et Ulixem, quidam opinantur, longo 
illo etfabuloso errore in hunc Oceanum delatum, adisse Ger- 
manics terras, Ascibitrgiumque, quod in ripa Rheni situm 
liodieque incolitur, ab illo constitutum nominatumque. Aram 
quin etiam Ulixi consecratam, adjecto Laertes patris nomine, 
eodem loco olim repertam ; monumentaque et tumulos quos- 
dam, Grcecis litteris inscriptos, in conjinio Germanics Rcsti- 
csque adhuc exstare. Quae neque confirmare argumentis, 
neque refellere in animo est : ex ingenio suo quisque de- 
mat, vel addat fidem. 

IV. Ipse eorum opinionibus accedo, qui Germanics 
fopulos nullis aliarum nationum connubiis infectos, pro- 
friam et sinceram et tantum sui similem gentem exstitisse, 
arbitrantur. Unde habitus quoque corporum, quamquam 
in tanto hominum numero, idem omnibus ; truces et caerulei 
oculi, rutilae comse, magna corpora et tantum ad impetum 



4 C. CORNELIUS TACITUS 

valida. Laboris atque operumnon eadempatientia: mini- 
meque sitim aestumque tolerare, frigora atque inediam 
ccelo solove adsueverunt. 

V. Terra, etsi aliquanto specie differt, in universum 
tamen aut silvis horrida, aut paludibus fceda : humidior, 
qua Gallias ; ventosior, qua Noricum ac Pannoniam ad- 
spicit : satis ferax, frugiferarum arborum patiens, pecorura 
foecunda, sed plerumque inprocera. Ne armentis quidem 
suus honor, aut gloria frontis : numero gaudent, eaeque 
solae et gratissimae opes sunt. Argentum et aurum pro- 
pitii an irati dii negaverint dubito. Nee tamen adfirma- 
verim, nullam Germaniae venam argentum aurumve gig- 
nere : quis enim scrutatus est ] posse ssione et usu haud 
perinde adficiuntur. Est videre apud illos argentea vasa, 
legatis et principibus eorum muneri data, non in alia vili- 
tate, quam quae humo finguntur : quamquam proximi, ob 
usum commerciorum, aurum et argentum in pretio babent, 
formasque quasdam nostrae pecuniae agnoscunt atque eli- 
gunt : interiores simplicius et antiquius permutatione 
mercium utuntur. Pecuniam probant veterem et diu 
notam, serratos, bigatosque. Argentum quoque magis 
quam aurum sequuntur, nulla adfectione animi, sed quia 
Humerus argenteorum facilior usui est promiscua ac vilia 
mercantibus. 

VI. Ne ferrum quidem superest, sicut ex genere telo- 
rum conligitur. B,ari gladiis, aut majoribus lanceis utun- 
tur. Hastas, vel ipsorum vocabulo frameas, gerunt, an- 
gusto et brevi ferro, sed ita acri, et ad usum habili, ut 
eodem telo, prout ratio poscit, vel cominus vel eminus 
pugnent. Et eques quidem scuto frameaque contentus 
est : pedites et missilia spargunt, plura singuli, atque in 
inmensum vibrant, nudi aut sagulo leves. Nulla cultus 
jactatio : scuta tantum lectissimis coloribus distinguunt : 
paucis loricae : vix uni alterive cassis, aut galea. Equi 
non forma, non velocitate conspicui. Sed nee variare 



DE GERMANlA. CAP. VI.-VIII. 5 

gyros, in raorem nostrum, docentur. In rectum, aut uno 
flexu dextros agunt, ita conjuncto orbe, ut nemo posterior 
sit. In universum aestimanti, plus penes peditem roboris : 
eoque mixti proeliantur, apta et congruente ad equestrem 
pugnam velocitate peditum, quos ex omni juventute de- 
lectos, ante aciem locant. Definitur et numerus : centeni 
ex singulis pagis sunt ; idque ipsum inter suos vocantur : 
et quod primo numerus fuit, jam nomen et honor est. 
Acies per cuneos componitur. Cedere loco, dummodo 
rursus instes, consilii quam formidinis arbitrantur. Cor- 
pora suorum etiam in dubiis proeliis referunt. Scutum 
reliquisse, praecipuum flagitium : nee aut sacris adesse, aut 
concilium inire, ignominioso fas ; multique superstites bel- 
lorum infamiam laqueo finierunt. 

VII. Reges ex nobilitate ; duces ex virtute sumunt. 
Nee regibus infinita aut libera potestas : et duces exemplo 
potius, quam imperio : si promti, si conspicui, si ante 
aciem agant, admiratione praesunt. Ceterum, neque ani- 
madvertere, neque vincire, ne verberare quid em, nisi 
sacerdotibus permissum : non quasi in poenam, nee ducis 
jussu, sed velut deo imperante, quern adesse bellantibus 
credunt : efrigiesque et signa quaedam, detracta lucis, in 
proelium ferunt. Quodque praecipuum fortitudinis incita- 
mentum est, non casus, nee fortuita conglobatio turmam 
aut cuneum facit, sed familiae et propinquitates ; et in 
proximo pignora, unde feminarum ululatus audiri, unde 
vagitus infantium. Hi cuique sanctissimi testes, hi maximi 
laudatores. Ad matres, ad conjuges vulnera ferunt: nee 
illae numerare, aut exigere plagas pavent : cibosque et 
hortamina pugnantibus gestant. 

VIII. Memoriae proditur, quasdam acies, inclinatas jam 
et labantes, a feminis restitutas, constantia precum et 
objectu pectorum, et monstrata cominus captivitate, quam 
longe impatientius feminarum suarum nomine timent : 
adeo, ut efficacius obligentur animi civitatum, quibus inter 



6 C. CORNELIUS TACITUS 

obsides puellse quoque nobiles imperantur. Inesse quin 
etiam sanctum aliquid et providum putant : nee aut con- 
silia earum adspernantur, aut responsa negligunt. Vidi- 
mus, sub divo Vespasiano, Veledam, diu apud plerosque 
numinis loco habitam. Sed et olim Auriniam et com- 
plures alias venerati sunt, non adulatione, nee tamquam 
facerent deas. 

IX. Deorum maxime Mercurium colunt, cui certis die- 
bus humanis quoque hostiis litare fas habent. Herculem 
ac Martem concessis animalibus placant. Pars Suevorum 
et Isidi sacrificat : unde caussa et origo peregrino sacro, 
parum comperi, nisi quod signum ipsum, in modum liburnae 
figuratum, docet advectam religionem. Ceterum, nee 
cohibere parietibus deos, neque in ullam humani oris 
speciem adsimilare, ex magnitudine ccelestium arbitrantur. 
Lucos ac nemora consecrant; deorumque nominibus ad- 
pellant secretum illud, quod sola reverentia vident. 

X. Auspicia sortesque, ut qui maxime, observant. 
Sortium consuetudo simplex. Virgam, frugiferae arbori 
decisam, in surculos amputant, eosque, notis quibusdam 
discretos, super candid am vestem temere ac fortuito spar- 
gunt. Mox, si publice consulatur, sacerdos civitatis, sin 
privatim, ipse paterfamilias, precatus deos, ccelumque sus- 
picions, ter singulos tollit, sublatOs, secundum impressam 
ante notam, interpretatur. Si prohibuerunt, nulla de 
eadem re in eundem diem consultatio ; sin permissum, 
auspiciorum adhuc fides exigitur. Et illud quidem etiam 
hie notum, avium voces volatusque interrogare : proprium 
gentis, equorum quoque prgesagia ac monitus experiri. 
Publice aluntur iisdem nemoribus ac lucis candidi, et nullo 
mortali opere contacti : quos pressos sacro curru sacerdos 
ac rex vel princeps civitatis comitantur, hinnitusque ac 
fremitus observant. Nee ulli auspicio major fides, non 
solum apud plebem, sed apud proceres, apud sacerdotes: 
se enim ministros deorum, illos conscios putant. Est et 



DE GERMANIA. CAP. X.-XII. 7 

alia observatio auspiciorum, qua gravium bellorum eventus 
explorant. Ejus gentis, cum qua bellum est, captivum, 
quoquo modo interceptum, cum electo popularium suorum, 
patriis quemque armis, committunt : victoria hujus vel 
illius pro praejudicio accipitur. 

XI. De minoribus rebus principes consultant ; de majo- 
ribus omnes: ita tamen, ut ea quoque, quorum penes ple- 
bem arbitrium est, apud principes pertractentur. Coeunt, 
nisi quid fortuitum et subitum incident, certis diebus, cum 
aut inchoatur luna, aut impletur : nam agendis rebus hoc 
auspicatissimum initium credunt. Nee dierum numerum, 
ut nos, sed noctium computant. Sic constituunt, sic con- 
dicunt ; nox ducere diem videtur. Mud ex libertate 
vitium, quod non simul, nee ut jussi conveniunt, sed et 
alter et tertius dies cunctatione coeuntium absumitur. Ut 
turbae placuit, considunt armati. Silentium per sacer- 
dotes, quibus turn et coercendi jus est, imperatur. Mox 
rex, vel princeps, prout aetas cuique, prout nobilitas, prout 
decus bellorum, prout facundia est, audiuntur, auctoritate 
suadendi magis, quam jubendi potestate. Si displicuit sen-„ 
tentia, fremitu adspernantur ; sin placuit, frameas concuti- 
unt. Honor atissimum adsensus genus est, armis laudare. 

XII. Licet apud consilium accusare quoque et dis- 
crimen capitis intendere. Distinctio pcenarum ex delicto. 
Proditores et transfugas arboribus suspendunt: ignavos et 
imbelles et corpore infames coeno ac palude, injecta in- 
super crate, mergunt. Diversitas supplicii illuc respicit, 
tamquam scelera ostendi oporteat, dum puniuntur, flagitia 
abscondi. Sed et levioribus delictis pro modo poena. 
Equorum pecorumque numero convicti multantur. Pars 
multae regi, vel civitati, pars ipsi, qui vindicatur, vel-pro- 
pinquis ejus exsolvitur. Eliguntur in iisdem conciliis et 
principes, qui jura per pagos vicosque reddant. Centeni 
singulis ex plebe comites, consilium simul et auctoritas, 
adsunt. 



8 C. CORNELIUS TACITUS 

XIII. Nihil autem neque publicae neque privatae rei, 
nisi armati agunt. Sed arma sumere non ante cuiquam 
moris, quam civitas sufFecturum probaverit. Turn in ipso 
consilio, vel principum aliquis, .vel pater, vel propinquus, 
scuto frameaque juvenem ornant. Haec apud illos toga, 
hie primus juventae honos : ante hoc domus pars videntur, 
mox reipublicae. Insignis nobilitas, aut magna patrum 
merita, principis dignationem etiam adolescentulis ad- 
signant : ceteris robustioribus ac jam pridem probatis ad- 
gregantur : nee rubor, inter comites adspici. Gradus 
quin etiam et ipse comitatus habet, judicio ejus, quem 
sectantur : magnaque et comitum aemulatio, quibus primus 
apud principem suum locus ; et principum, cui plurimi et 
acerrimi comites. Haec dignitas, hae vires, magno semper 
electorum juvenum globo circumdari, in pace decus, in 
bello prEesidium. Nee solum in sua gente cuique, sed 
apud flnitimas quoque civitates id nomen, ea gloria est, si 
numero ac virtute comitatus emineat: expetuntur enim 
legationibus, et muneribus ornantur, et ipsa plerumque 
fama bella profligant. 

XIV. Cum ventum in aciem, turpe principi virtute 
vinci, turpe comitatui virtutem principis non adaequare. 
Jam vero infame in omnem vitam ac probrosum, supersti- 
tem principi suo ex acie recessisse. Ilium defendere, 
tueri, sua quoque fortia facta glorias ejus adsignare, prae- 
cipuum sacramentum est. Principes pro victoria pugnant ; 
comites pro principe. Si civitas, in qua orti sunt, longa 
pace et otio torpeat; plerique nobilium adolescentium 
petunt ultro eas nationes, quae turn bellum aliquod gerunt; 
quia et ingrata genti quies, et facilius inter ancipitia cla- 
rescant, magnumque comitatum non nisi vi belloque tue- 
are. Exigunt enim principis sui liberalitate ilium bellato- 
rem equurn, illam cruentam victricemque frameam. Nam 
epulae, et convictus, quamquam incomti, largi tamen ap- 
paratus, pro stipendio cedunt. Materia munificientiae per 



DE GERMANIA. CAP. XIV.-XVII. 9 

bella et raptus. Nee arare terram, aut exspectare annum, 
tarn facile persuaseris, quam vocare hostes et vulnera 
mereri. Pigrum quin immo et iners videtur, sudore ad- 
quirere, quod possis sanguine parare. 

XV. Quotiens bella non ineunt, multum venatibus, plus 
per otium transigunt, dediti somno ciboque. Fortissimus 
quisque ac bellicosissimus nihil agens, delegata domus et 
penatium et agrorum cura feminis senibusque et infir- 
missimo cuique ex familia, ipsi liebent : mira diversitate 
naturae, cum iidem homines sic ament inertiam et oderint 
quietem. Mos est civitatibus, ultro ac viritim conferre 
principibus vel armentorum, vel frugum, quod pro honore 
acceptum etiam necessitatibus subvenit. Graudent prae- 
cipue fin itim arum gentium donis, quae non modo a singulis, 
sed et publice mittuntur ; electi equi, magna arma, pha- 
lerae, torquesque. Jam et pecuniam accipere docuimus. 

XVI. Nuilas Germanorum populis urbes habitari, satis 
notum est : ne pati quidem inter se junctas sedes. Colunt 
discreti ac diversi, ut fons, ut campus, ut nemus placuit. 
Vicos locant, non in nostrum morem, connexis et cohae- 
rentibus aedificiis : suam quisque domum spatio circumdat, 
sive adversus casus ignis remedium, sive inscitia aedifi- 
candi. Ne caementorum quidem apud illos aut tegularum 
usus : materia ad omnia utuntur informi et citra speci- 
em aut delectationem. Quaedam loca diligentius illinunt 
terra, ita pura ac splendente, ut picturam ac lineamenta 
colorum imitetur. Solent et subterraneos specus aperire, 
eosque multo insuper fimo onerant, sufFugium hiemi et 
receptaculum frugibus : quia rigorem frigorum ejusmodi 
locis molliunt ; et, si quando hostis advenit, aperta popu- 
latur, abdita autem et defossa aut ignorantur, aut eo ipso 
fallunt, quod quaere nda sunt. 

XVII. Tegumen omnibus sagum, fibula, aut, si desit, 
spina consertum : cetera intecti totos dies juxta focum 
atque ignem agunt. Locupletissimi veste distinguuntur, 

A2 



10 ■ C. CORNELIUS TACITUS 

non fl uitante, sicut Sarmatae ac Parthi, sed stricta et singu- 
los artus exprimente. Gerunt et ferarum pelles, proximi 
ripae negligenter, ulteriores exquisitius, ut quibus nullus 
per commercia cultus. Eligunt feras, et detracta velamina 
spargunt maculis, pellibusque belluarum, quas exterior 
Oceanus atque ignotum mare gignit. Nee alius feminis 
quam viris habitus, nisi quod feminae saepius lineis amicti- 
bus velantur, eosque purpura variant, partemque vestitus 
superioris in manicas non extendunt; nudae brachia ac 
lacertos. 

XVIII. Sed et proxima pars pectoris patet : quamquam 
severa illic matrimonia ; nee ullam morura partem magis 
laudaveris : nam prope soli barbarorum singulis uxoribus 
contend sunt, exceptis admodum paucis, qui non libidine, 
sed ob nobilitatem, plurimis nuptiis ambiuntur. Dotem 
non uxor marito, sed uxori maritus, offert. Intersunt 
parentes et propinqui, ac munera probant, munera non 
ad delicias muliebres quaesita, nee quibus nova nupta 
comatur ; sed boves et frenatum equum et scutum cum 
framea gladioque. In haec munera uxor accipitur : atque 
invicem ipsa armorum aliquid viro affert. Hoc maximum 
vinculum, haec arcana sacra, hos conjugales deos arbitran- 
tur. Ne se mulier extra virtutum cogitationes extraque 
bellorum casus putet, ipsis incipientis matrimonii auspiciis 
admonetur, venire se laborum periculorumque sociam, 
idem in pace, idem in prcelio passuram ausuramque. Hoc 
juncti boves, hoc paratus equus, hoc data arma denuntiant. 
Sic vivendum, sic pereundum : accipere se, quae liberis 
inviolata ac digna reddat, quae nurus accipiant, rursusque 
ad nepotes referant. 

XIX. Ergo septae pudicitia agunt, nullis spectaculorum 
illecebris, nullis conviviorum irritationibus corruptae. Lit- 
terarum secreta viri pariter ac feminae ignorant. Paucis- 
sima in tarn numerosa gente adulteria ; quorum poena 
praesens, et maritis permissa. Accisis crinibus, nudatam, 



DE GERMANIA. CAP. XIX.— XXI. 11 

coram propinquis, expellit domo maritus, ac per omnem 
vicum verbere agit. Publicatae enim pudicitiae nulla ve- 
nia; non forma, non aetate, non opibus maritum invenerit. 
Nemo enim illic vitia ridet; nee corrumpere et corrumpi 
saeculum vocatur. Melius quidem adhuc eae civitates, in 
quibus tantum virgines nubunt, et cum spe votoque uxoris 
semel transigitur. Sic unum accipiunt maritum, quo modo 
unum corpus unamque vitam, ne ulla cogitatio ultra, ne 
longior cupiditas, ne tamquam maritum, sed tamquam 
matrimonium, ament. Numerum liberorum finire, aut 
quemquam ex agnatis necare, nagitium habetur : plusque 
ibi boni mores valent, quam alibi bonge leges. 

XX. In omni domo nudi ac sordidi, in hos artus, in 
haec corpora, quae miramur, excrescunt. Sua quemque 
mater uberibus alit, nee ancillis ac nutricibus delegantur. 
Dominum ac servum nullis educationis deliciis dignoscas. 
Inter eadem pecora, in eadem humo degunt, donee aetas 
separet ingenuos, virtus agnoscat. Serajuvenum Venus; 
eoque inexhausta pubertas. Nee virgines festinantur; 
eadem juventa, similis proceritas. Pares validaeque mi- 
scentur, ac robora parentum liberi referunt. Sororum 
filiis idem apud avunculum, qui apud patrem honor. Qui- 
dam sanctiorem arctioremque hunc nexum sanguinis ar- 
bitrantur, et in accipiendis obsidibus magis exigurit; tam- 
quam ii et animum firmius, et domum latius teneant. 
Heredes tamen successoresque sui cuique liberi ; et nul- 
lum testamentum. Si liberi non sunt, proximus gradus in 
possessione fratres, patrui, avunculi. Quanto plus propin- 
quorum, quo major affinium numerus, tanto gratiosior 
senectus, nee ulla orbitatis pretia. 

XXI. Suscipere tarn inimicitias, seu patris, seu propin- 
qui, quam amicitias, necesse est. Nee inplacabiles durant. 
Luitur enim etiam homicidium certo armentorum ac pe- 
corum numero, recipitque satisfactionem universa domus : 
utiliter in publicum ; quia periculosiores sunt inimicitias 



12 C. CORNELIUS TACITUS 

juxta libertatem. Convictibus et hospitlis non alia gens 
effusius indulget. Quemcumque mortalium arcere tecto, 
nefas habetur : pro fortuna quisque adparatis epulis ex- 
cipit. Cum defecere, qui modo hospes fuerat, monstrator 
hospitii et comes : proximam domum non invitati adeunt: 
nee interest : pari humanitate accipiuntur. Notum igno- 
tumque, quantum ad jus hospitii, nemo discernit. Abe- 
unti, si quid poposcerit, concedere moris : et poscendi in- 
vicem eadem facilitas. Gaudent muneribus : sed nee data 
inputant, nee acceptis obligantur. - Victus inter hospites 
comis, 

XXII. Statim e somno, quern plerumque in diem extra- 
hunt, lavantur, saepius calida, ut apud quos plurimum hiems 
occupat. Lauti cibum capiunt : separatae singulis sedes 
et sua cuique mensa. Turn ad negotia, nee minus saepe ad 
convivia, procedunt armati. Diem noctemque continuare 
potando, nulli probrum. Crebrae, ut inter vinolentos, rixae, 
raro conviciis, seepius caede et vulneribus transiguntur. 
Sed et de reconciliandis invicem inimicis et jungendis ad- 
finitatibus et-adseiseendis principibus, de pace denique ac 
bello, plerumque in conviviis consultant : tamquam nullo 
magis tempore aut ad simplices cogitationes pateat animus, 
aut ad magnas incalescat. Gens non astuta, nee callida, 
aperit adhuc secreta pectoris licentia joci. Ergo detecta 
et nuda omnium mens postera die retractatur, et salva 
utriusque temporis ratio est. Deliberant, dum fingere 
nesciunt : constituunt, dum errare non possunt. 

XXIII. Potui humor ex hordeo aut frumento, in quan- 
dam similitudinem vini corruptus. Proximi ripae et vinum 
mercantur. Cibi simplices ; agrestia poma, recens fera, 
aut lac concretum. Sine adparatu, sine blandimentis, ex- 
pellunt famem. Adversus sitim non eadem temperantia. 
Si indulseris ebrietati, suggerendo quantum concupiscunt, 
haud minus facile vitiis, quam armis, vincentur. 

XXIV. Genus spectaculorum unum atque in omni ccetu 



DE GERMANIA. CAP. XXIV.-XXVI. 13 

idem. Nudi juvenes, quibus id ludicrum est, inter g'ladios 
se atque infestas frameas saltu jaciunt. Exercitatio artem 
paravit, ars decorem : norr in quaestum tamen, aut merce- 
dem : quamvis audacis lasciviae pretium est voluptas 
spectantium. Ale am (quod mirere) sobrii inter seria ex- 
ercent, tanta lucrandi perdendive temeritate, ut, cum om- 
nia defecerunt, extremo ac novissimo jactu de libertate 
et de corpore contendant. Victus voluntariam servitutem 
adit : quamvis juvenior, quamvis robustior, adligari se ac 
venire patitur. Ea est in re prava pervicacia : ipsi fidem 
vocant. Servos conditionis hujus per commercia tradunt, 
ut se quoque pudore victorias exsolvant. 

XXV. Ceteris servis, non in nostrum morem, discriptis 
per familiam ministeriis, utuntur. Suam quisque sedem, 
suos penates regit. Frumenti modum dominus, aut pe- 
coris, aut vestis, ut colono, injungit ; et servus hactenus 
paret. Cetera domus officia uxor ac liberi exsequuntur. 
Verberare servum ac vinculis et opere coercere, rarum. 
Occidere solent, non disciplina et severitate, sed impetu et 
ira, ut inimicum, nisi quod impune. Libertini non multum 
supra servos sunt, raro aliquod momentum in domo, num- 
quam in civitate ; exceptis dumtaxat iis gentibus, quae 
regnantur. Ibi enim et super ingenuos et super nobiles 
ascendunt : apud ceteros impares libertini libertatis argu- 
mentum sunt. 

XXVI. Fenus agitare, et in usuras extendere, ignotum : 
ideoque magis servatur, quam si vetitum esset. Agri, pro 
numero cultorum, ab universis in vices occupantur, quos 
mox inter se secundum dignationem partiuntur : facili- 
tatem partiendi camporum spatia praestant. Arva per an- 
nos mutant ; et superest ager : nee enim cum ubertate 
et amplitudine soli labore contendunt, ut pomaria conse- 
rant et prata separent et hortos rigent : sola terras seges 
imperatur. Unde annum quoque ipsum non in totidem 
digerunt species : hiems et ver et aestas intellectum, ac 



14 C. CORNELIUS TACITUS 

voeabula habent; auctumni perinde nomen ac bona igno- 
rantur. 

XXVII. Funerum nulla ambitio : id solum observatur, ut 
corpora clarorum virorum certis lignis crementur. Struem 
rogi nee vestibus, nee odoribus, cumulant : sua cuique 
arma, quorundam igni et equus adjicitur. Sepulcrum 
cespes erigit. Monumentorum arduum et operosum hono- 
rem, ut gravem defunctis, adspernantur. L amenta ac 
lacrimas cito, dolorem et tristitiam tarde ponunt. Feminis 
lugere honestum est; viris meminisse. Heec in commune 
de omnium Germanorum origine ac moribus accepimus : 
nunc singularum gentium instituta ritusque, quatenus 
differant, quas nationes e Germania in Gallias commigra- 
verint, expediam. 

XXVIII. Validiores olim Gallorum res fuisse, summus 
auctorum divus Julius tradit : eoque credibile est, etiamGal- 
los in Germaniam transgressos. Quantulum enim amnis 
obstabat, quo minus, ut quseque gens evaluerat, occuparet 
permutaretque sedes, promiscuas adhuc et nulla regnorum 
potentia divisas ? Igitur inter Hercyniam silvam Rhenum- 
que et Moenum amnes Helvetii, ulteriora Boii, Gallica 
utraque gens, tenuere. Manet adhuc Boiemi nomen, 
significatque loci veterem memoriam quamvis mutatis 
cultoribus. Sed utrum Aravisci in Pannoniam ab Osis, 
Germanorum natione, an Osi ab Araviscis in Germaniam, 
commigraverint, cum eodem adhuc sermone, institutis, 
moribus utantur, incertum est : quia, pari olim inopia ac 
libertate, eadem utriusque ripse bona rnalaque erant. 
Treveri et Nervii circa adfectationem Germanicae originis 
ultro ambitiosi sunt, tamquam, per hanc gloriam sanguinis, 
a similitudine et inertia Gallorum separentur. Ipsam 
Rheni ripam haud dubie Germanorum populi colunt, 
Vangiones, Triboci, Nemetes. Ne Ubii quidem quam- 
quam Romana colonia esse meruerint, ac libentius Agrip- 
pinenses conditoris sui nomine vocentur, origine eru- 



DE GERMANIA. CAP. XXVIII.-XXX. 15 

bescunt, transgressi olim et experimento fidei super ipsam 
Rheni ripam collocati, ut arcerent, non ut custodirentur. 

XXIX. Omnium harum gentium virtute praecipui Ba- 
tavi, non multum ex ripa, sed insulam Rheni amnis, colunt, 
Cattorum quondam populus, et seditione domestica in eas 
sedes transgressus, in quibus pars Romani imperii fierent. 
Manet lionos et antiquae societatis insigne : nam nee tri- 
butis contemnuntur, nee publicanus adterit : exemti 
oneribus et collationibus, et tantum in usum proeliorum 
sepositi velut tela atque arma, bellis reservantur. Est in 
eodem obsequio et Mattiacorum gens. Protulit enim 
magnitudo Populi Romani ultra Rhenum, ultraque veteres 
terminos, imperii reverentiam. Ita sede finibusque in sua 
ripa, mente animoque nobiscum agunt, cetera similes Ba- 
tavis, nisi quod ipso adhuc terrae suae solo et coelo acrius 
animantur. Non numeraverim inter Germaniae populos, 
quamquam trans Rhenum Danubiumque consederint, eos, 
qui Decumates agros exercent. Levissimus quisque Gal- 
lorum, et inopia audax, dubiae possessionis solum occu- 
pavere. Mox limite acto promotisque praesidiis, sinus 
imperii et pars provinciae habentur. 

XXX. Ultra hos Catti initium sedis ab Hercynio saltu 
inchoant, non ita effusis ac palustribus locis, ut ceterae 
civitates, in quas Germania patescit : durant siquidem 
colles, paulatimque rarescunt; et Cattos suos saltus Her- 
cynius prosequitur simul atque deponit. Duriora genti 
corpora, stricti artus, minax vultus, et major animi vigor. 
Multum (ut inter Germanos) rationis ac sollertiae : prae- 
ponere electos, audire praepositos, nosse ordines, intelli- 
gere occasiones, differre impetus, disponere diem, vallare 
noctem, fortunam inter dubia, virtutem inter certa nume- 
rare : quodque rarissimum, nee nisi Romanae discipline 
concessum, plus reponere in duce, quam in exercitu. 
Omne robur in pedite, quern super arma ferramentis quo- 
que et copiis onerant. Alios ad proelium ire videas, Cat- 



16 C. CORNELIUS TACITUS 

tos ad bellum : rari excursus et fortuita pugna. Eques- 
trium sane virium id proprium, cito parare victoriam, cito 
cedere. Velocitas juxta formidinem, cunctatio propior 
constantiae est. 

XXXI. Et aliis Germanorum populis usurpatum rara 
et privata cujusque audentia apud Cattos in consensum 
vertit, ut primum adoleverint, crinem barbamque submit- 
tere, nee, nisi hoste caeso, exuere votivum obligatumque 
virtuti oris habitum. Super sanguinem et spolia revelant 
frontem, seque turn demwn jpretia nascendi retulisse dig- 
nosque jpatria ac parentibus ferunt. Ignavis et imbellibus 
manet squalor. Fortissimus quisque ferreum insuper an- 
nulura (ignominiosum id genti) velut vinculum gestat, 
donee se casde hostis absolvat. Plurimis Cattorum hie 
placet habitus. Jamque canent insignes, et hostibus simul 
suisque monstrati : omnium penes hos initia pugnarum ; 
hasc prima semper acies visu torva. Nam ne in pace 
quidem vultu mitiore mansuescunt. Nulli domus, aut 
ager, aut aliqua cura : prout ad quemque venere, aluntur : 
prodigi alieni, contemtores sui ; donee exsanguis senec- 
tus tarn durae virtuti impares faciat. 

XXXII. Proximi Cattis certum jam alveo Elienum, 
quique terminus esse sufficiat, Usipii ac Tencteri colunt. 
Tencteri, super solitum bellorum decus, equestris dis- 
ciplines arte prascellunt; nee major apud Cattos peditum 
laus, quam Tencteris equitum. Sic instituere majores, 
posteri imitantur. Hi lusus infantium, base juvenum aemu- 
latio ; perseverant senes. Inter familiam et penates et 
jura successionum equi traduntur; excipit filius, non, ut 
cetera, maximus natu, sed prout ferox bello et melior. 

XXXIII. Juxta Tencteros Bructeri olim occurrebant; 
nunc Chamavos et Angrivarios immigrasse narratur, pulsis 
Bructeris ac penitus excisis, vicinarum consensu nationum; 
seu superbiae odio, seu prasdae dulcedine, seu favore quo- 
dam erga nos deorum : nam ne spectaculo quidem prcelii 



DE GERMANIA. CAP. XXXIII.-XXXVI. 17 

invidere : super sexaginta-milia, non armis telisque Ho- 
manis, sed, quod magnificentius est, oblectationi oculisque 
ceciderunt. Maneat, quaeso, duretque gentibus, si non 
amor nostri, at certe odium sui ; quando, urgentibus im- 
perii fatis, nihil jam praestare fortuna majus potest, quam 
hostium discordiam. 

XXXIV. Angrivarios et Chamavos a tergo Dulgibini 
et Chasuari cludunt, aliaeque gentes, hand perinde memo- 
ratae. A fronte Frisii excipiunt. Majoribus minor ibus que 
Frisiis vocabulum est ex modo virium. Utraeque nationes 
usque ad oceanum Rheno prastexuntur, ambiuntque im- 
mensos insuper lacus et Romanis classibus navigatos. 
Ipsum quin etiam oceanum ilia tentavimus : et superesse 
adhuc Herculis columnas fama vulgavit, sive adiit Her- 
cules, seu, quidquid ubique magnificum est, in claritatem 
ejus referre consensimus. Nee defuit audentia Druso 
Germanico : sed obstitit oceanus in se simul atque in Her- 
culem inquiri. Mox nemo tentavit ; sanctiusque ac reve- 
rentius visum de actis deorum credere quam scire. 

XXXV. Hactenus in Occidentem G-ermaniam novimus. 
In Septemtrionem ingenti flexu redit. Ac primo statim 
Caucorum gens, quamquam incipiat a Frisiis, ac partem 
litoris occupet, omnium, quas exposui, gentium lateribus 
obtenditur, donee in Cattos usque sinuetur. Tarn im- 
mensum terrarum spatium non tenent tantum Cauci, sed 
et implent, populus inter Germanos nobilissimus, quique 
magnitudinem suam malit justitia tueri : sine cupiditate, 
sine impotentia, quieti secretique, nulla provocant bella, 
nullis raptibus aut latrociniis populantur : idque praecip- 
uum virtutis ac virium argumentum est, quod, ut su- 
periores agant, non per injurias adsequuntur. Promta 
tamen omnibus arma, ac, si res poscat, exercitus : pluri- 
mum virorum equorumque: et quiescentibus eadem fama. 

XXXVI. In latere Caucorum Cattorumque Cherusci 
nimiam ac marcentem diu pacem illacessiti nutrierunt : 



18 C. CORNELIUS TACITUS 

idque jucundius, quam tutius, fuit : quia inter impotentes 
et validos falso quiescas; ubi manu agitur, modestia ac 
probitas nomina superioris sunt. Ita, qui olim boni cequi- 
que Cherusci, nunc inertes ac stulti vocantur : Cattis vio 
toribus fortuna in sapientiam cessit. Tracti ruina Che- 
ruscorum et Fosi, contermina gens, adversarum rerum ex 
aequo socii, cum in secundis minores fuissent. 

XXXVII. Eundem Germanise sinum proximi x>ceano 
Cimbri tenent, parva nunc civitas, sed gloria ingens : 
veterisque famae late vestigia manent, utraque ripa castra 
ac spatia, quorum ambitu nunc quoque metiaris molem 
manusque gentis et tarn magni exitus fidem. Sexcentesi- 
mum et quadragesimum annum urbs nostra agebat, cum 
primum Cimbrorum audita sunt arma, Caecilio Metello ac 
Papirio Carbone coss. Ex quo si ad alterum imperatoris 
Trajani consulatum computemus, ducenti ferme et decern 
anni colliguntur. Tamdiu Germania vincitur. Medio 
tarn longi aevi spatio, multa invicem damna : non Samnis, 
non Pceni, non Hispaniae Galliaeve, ne Parthi quidem 
saepius admonuere : quippe regno Arsacis acrior est Ger- 
manorum libertas. Quid enim aliud nobis, quam caedem 
Crassi, amisso et ipso Pacoro, infra Ventidium dejectus 
Oriens objecerit? At Germani Carbone et Cassio et 
Scauro Aurelio et Servilio Caepione Cnaeo quoque Manlio 
fusis vel captis, quinque simul consulares exercitus Populo 
Romano, Varum tresque cum eo legiones etiam Caesari 
abstulerunt : nee impune Caius Marius in Italia, divus 
Julius in Gallia, Drusus ac Nero et Germanicus in suis 
eos sedibus perculerunt. Mox ingentes Caii Caesaris 
minae in ludibrium versae. Inde otium, donee occasione 
discordiae nostrae et civilium armorum, expugnatis legio- 
num hibernis, etiam Gallias adfectavere : ac rursus pulsi 
inde, proximis temporibus triumphati magis quam victi 
sunt. 

XXXVIII. Nunc de Suevis dicendum est, quorum non 



DE GERMANIA. CAP. XXXVIII.-XL. 19 

una, ut Cattorum Tencterorumve, gens : majorem enim 
Germaniae partem obtinent, propriis adhuc nationibus 
nominibusque discreti, quamquam in commune Suevi vo- 
centur. Insigne gentis obliquare crinem nodoque sub- 
stringere. Sic Suevi a ceteris Germanis, sic Suevorum 
ingenui a servis separantur. In aliis gentibus, seu cog- 
natione aliqua Suevorum, seu (quod saepe accidit) imita- 
tione, rarum et intra juventse spatium ; apud Suevos usque 
ad canitiem horrentem capillum retro sequuntur, ac saepe 
in ipso solo vertice ligant. Principes et ornatiorem ha- 
bent : ea cura formae, sed innoxia. Neque enim ut ament 
amenturve ; in altitudinem quamdam et terrorem, adituri 
bella, comti, ut hostium oculis ornantur. 

XXXIX. Vetustissimos se nobilissimosque Suevorum 
Semnones memorant. Fides antiquitatis religione firma- 
tur. Stato tempore in silvam, auguriis patrum et prisca 
formidine sacram, omnes ejusdem sanguinis populi lega- 
tionibus coeunt, caesoque publice homine celebrant barbari 
ritus horrenda primordia. Est et alia luco reverentia. 
Nemo nisi vinculo ligatus ingreditur, ut minor, et potes- 
tatem numinis prae se ferens : si forte prolapsus est, attolli 
et insurgere haud licitum : per humum evolvuntur : eoque 
omnis superstitio respicit, tamquam inde initia gentis, ibi 
regnator omnium deus, cetera subjecta atque parentia. 
Adjicit auctoritatem fortuna Semnonum. Centum pagis 
habitant : magnoque corpore efficitur, ut se Suevorum 
caput credant. 

XL. Contra Langobardos paucitas nobilitat : plurimis 
ac valentissimis nationibus cincti, non per obsequium, sed 
prceliis et periclitando tuti sunt. Reudigni deinde et 
Aviones et Angli et Varini et Eudoses et Suardones et 
Nuithones fluminibus aut silvis muniuntur. Nee quid- 
quam notabile in singulis, nisi quod in commune Hertliam, 
id est, Terram matrem, colunt, eamque intervenire rebus 
hominum, invehi populis, arbitrantur. Est in insula 



20 C. CORNELIUS TACITUS 

oceani castum nemus, dicatumque in eo vehiculum, veste 
contectum : attingere uni sacerdoti concessum. Is adesse 
penetrali deam intelligit, vectamque bubus feminis multa 
cum veneratione prosequitur. Laeti tunc dies, festa loca, 
quaecunque adventu hospitioque dignatur. Non bella 
ineunt, non arma sumunt ; clausum omne ferrum : pax et 
quies tunc tantum nota, tunc tantum amata, donee idem 
sacerdos satiatam conversatione mortalium deam templo 
redd at. Mox vehiculum et vestes, et, si credere velis, 
numen ipsum secreto lacu abluitur. Servi ministrant; 
quos statim idem lacus haurit. Arcanus hinc terror 
sanctaque ignorantia, quid sit illud quod tantum perituri 
vident. 

XL I. Et haec quidem pars Suevorum in secretiora 
Germaniae porrigitur. Propior (ut, quo modo paulo ante 
Rhenum, sic nunc Danubium sequar) Hermundurorum 
civitas, fida Romanis, eoque solis Germanorum non in 
ripa commercium, sed penitus atque in splendidissima 
Raetiae provincial colonia : passim et sine custode transe- 
unt ; et, cum ceteris gentibus arma modo castraque nostra 
ostendamus, his domos villasque patefecimus non concu- 
piscentibus. In Hermunduris Albis oritur, flumen incli- 
tum et notum olim ; nunc tantum auditur. 

XLII. Juxta Hermunduros Narisci, ac deinde Marco- 
manni et Quadi agunt. Praecipua Marcomannorum gloria 
viresque, atque ipsa etiam sedes, pulsis olim Boiis, virtute 
parta. Nee Narisci Quadive degenerant. Eaque Ger- 
maniae velut frons est, quatenus Danubio peragitur. Mar- 
comannis Quadisque usque ad nostram memoriam reges 
manserunt ex gente ipsorum, nobile Marobodui et Tudri 
genus; jam et externos patiuntur. Sed vis et potentia 
regibus ex auctoritate Romana : raro armis nostris, saepius 
pecunia juvantur. 

XLIII. Nee minus valent retro Marsigni, G-othini, Osi, 
Buri : terga Marcomannorum Quadorumque cludunt : e 



DE GERMANIA. CAP. XLIII.-XLIV. 21 

quibus Marsigni etBuri sermone cultuque Suevos referunt. 
Gothinos Gallica, Osos Pannonica lingua, coarguit non 
esse Germanos, et quod tributa patiuntur : partem tribu- 
torum Sarmatae, partem Q,uadi, ut alienigenis imponunt. 
Gothini, quo magis pudeat, et ferrum effodiunt: omnes- 
que hi populi pauca campestrium, ceterum saltus et ver- 
tices montium insederunt. Dirimit enim scinditque Sue- 
viam continuum montium jugum, ultra quod plurimse 
gentes agunt : ex quibus latissime patet Lygiorum nomen 
in plures civitates diffusum. Valentissimas nominasse 
sufficiet, Arios, Helveconas, Manimos, Elysios, Naharva- 
los. Apud Naharvalos antiquae religionis lucus ostenditur. 
Prsesidet sacerdos muliebri ornatu : sed deos, interpreta- 
tione Romana, Castorem Pollucemque memorant. Ea vis 
numini; nomen Aids : nulla simulacra, nullum peregrinae 
superstitionis vestigium : ut fratres tamen, ut juvenes, 
venerantur. Ceterum Arii super vires, quibus enumeratos 
paulo ante populos antecedunt, truces, insitse feritati arte 
ac tempore lenocinantur : nigra scuta, tincta corpora : 
atras ad prcelia noctes legunt; ipsaque formidine atque 
umbra feralis exercitus terrorem inferunt, nullo hostium 
sustinente novum ac velut infernum adspectum : nam 
primi in omnibus proeliis oculi vincuntur. Trans Lygios 
Gotones regnantur, paulo jam adductius quam ceterae 
Germanorum gentes, nondum tamen supra libertatem. 
Protinus deinde ab oceano Rugii et Lemovii: omniumque 
harum gentium insigne, rotunda scuta, breves gladii, et 
erga reges obsequium. 

XLIV. Suionum hinc civitates, ipso in oceano, praeter 
viros armaque classibus valent : forma navium eo difFert, 
quod utrinque prora paratam semper appulsui frontem 
affit : nee velis ministrantur, nee remos in ordinem lateri- 
bus adjungunt. Solutum, ut in quibusdam numinum, et 
mutabile, ut res poscit, hinc vel illinc remigium. Est 
apud illos et opibus honos, eoque unus imperitat, nullis 



22 C. CORNELIUS TACITUS 

jam exceptionibus, non precario jure parendi : nee arma, 
ut apud ceteros Germanos, in promiscuo, sed clausa sub 
custode et quidem servo, quia subitos hostium incursus 
prohibet oceanus, otiosae porro armatorum manus facile 
lasciviunt: enimvero neque nobilem, neque ingenuum, ne 
libertinum quidem, armis praeponere regia utilitas est. 

XLV. Trans Suionas aliud mare, pigrum ac prope im- 
motum, quo cingi cludique terrarum orbem hinc fides ; 
quod extremus cadentis jam solis fulgor in ortus edurat 
adeo clarus, ut sidera hebetet ; sonum insuper audiri foi 
masque deorum et radios capitis adspici persuasio adjicit. 
Illuc usque et fama vera tantum natura. Ergo jam dextro 
Suevici maris littore iEstyorum gentes alluuntur: quibus 
ritus habitusque Suevorum ; lingua Britannicae propior. 
Matrem deum venerantur : insigne superstitionis formas 
aprorum gestant. Id pro armis omnique tutela securum 
deae cultorem etiam inter hostes praestat. Harus ferri, 
frequens fustium usus. Frumenta ceterosque fructus pa- 
tientius, quam pro solita Germanorum inertia, laborant. 
Sed et mare scrutantur, ac soli omnium succinum, quod 
ipsi glesum vocant, inter vada atque in ipso littore legunt. 
Nee, quae natura, quaeve ratio gignat, ut barbaris, quaesi- 
tum compertumve. Diu quin etiam inter cetera ejecta- 
menta maris jacebat, donee luxuria nostra dedit nomen : 
ipsis in nullo usu ; rude legitur, informe perfertur, preti- 
umque mirantes accipiunt. Succum tamen arborum esse 
intelligas, quia terrena quaedam atque etiam volucria ani- 
malia plerumque interlucent, quae implicata humore mox 
durescente materia cluduntur. Fecundiora igitur nemora 
lucosque sicut Orientis secretis, ubi tura balsamaque su- 
dantur, ita Occidentis insulis terrisque inesse, crediderim; 
quae vicini solis radiis expressa atque liquentia in proxi- 
mum mare labuntur, ac vi tempestatum in adversa littora 
exundant. Si naturam succini admoto igni tentes, in 
modum taedae accenditur, alitque flammam pinguem et 



DE GERMANIA. CAP. XLV.-XLVI. 23 

olentem : mox ut in picem resinamve lentescit. Suioni- 
bus Sitonum gentes continuantur. Cetera similes uno 
differunt, quod femina dominatur : in tantum non modo a 
libertate sed etiam a servitute degenerant. Hie Sueviae 
finis. 

XL VI. Peucinorum Venedorumque et Fennorum na- 
tiones Germanis an Sarmatis adscribam, dubito, quam- 
quam Peucini, quos quidam Bastarnas vocant, sermone, 
cultu, sede ac domiciliis ut Germani agunt. Sordes omni- 
um ac torpor : procerum connubiis mixtis nonnihil in Sar- 
matarum habitum foedantur. Venedi multum ex moribus 
traxerunt. Nam quidquid inter Peucinos Fennosque sil- 
varum ac montium erigitur, latrociniis pererrant : hi tamen 
inter Germanos potius referuntur, quia et domos fingunt et 
scuta gestant et peditum usu ac pernicitate gaudent; quae 
omnia diversa Sarmatis sunt, in plaustro equoque viventi- 
bus. Fennis mira feritas, foeda paupertas : non arma, non 
equi, non penates : victui herba, vestitui pelles, cubile 
humus : sola in sagittis spes, quas, inopia ferri, ossibus 
asperant : idemque venatus viros pariter ac feminas alit. 
Passim enim comitantur, partemque praedae petunt. Nee 
aliud infantibus ferarum imbriumque sufFugium, quam ut 
in aliquo ramorum nexu contegantur : hue redeunt juve- 
nes, hoc senum receptaculum. Sed beatius arbitrantur 
quam ingemere agris, inlaborare domibus, suas alienasque 
fortunas spe metuque versare. Securi adversus homines, 
securi adversus deos, rem difficillimam adsecuti sunt, ut 
illis ne voto quidem opus esset. Cetera jam fabulosa : 
Hellusios et Oxionas ora hominum vultusque, corpora ataue 
artus ferarum gerere: quod ego, ut incompertum, in me- 
dium relinquam. 



C. CORNEL 1 1 TACITI 



JULII AGRICOLiE. 



C. CORNEL II TACIT I 
JULII AGRICOLiE 

VITA. 



SUMMARY. 
Chap. I. The custom of writing the lives of illustrious men an ancient one. 
IT. Dangerous, however, under bad princes. III. This custom resumed 
by Tacitus, under the happy reign of Nerva, in honor of Agricola, the 
writer's father-in-law. IV. Origin and education of Agricola. Y. The 
rudiments of the military art learned by him in Britain. VI. He mar- 
ries. — Is appointed, in succession, quaestor, tribune, praetor, &c. VII. 
His mother murdered during a hostile descent made by Otho's fleet on 
the coast of Liguria, her lands ravaged, and a great part of her effects 
carried off. — Agricola goes over to the side of Vespasian, and receives 
the command of the 20th legion, in Britain. VIII. Excellent deport- 
ment of Agricola while in command. IX. Returns to Rome. — Is called 
by Vespasian to the patrician order, and invested with the government 
of Aquitania. — Is chosen consul. — Betroths his daughter to Tacitus. — Is 
appointed governor of Britain. X. Description of Britain. XI. Origin 
of the Britons. — Their physical conformation, sacred rites, language, 
general character. XII. Their military strength, form of government, 
climate, soil, &c. XIII. Their cheerful submission to levies, tributes, 
&c. — The expedition of Caesar into Britain. — Long neglect of the island 
subsequently, on the part of the Romans. — Invasion of Britain in the 
reign of Claudius, and restoration of the Roman authority. XIV. Opera- 
tions of the consular governors. XV. Britons meditate a rebellion. 
XVI. Boadicea, a female of royal descent, their leader. — Defeated by 
Suetonius Paullinus. — Roman governors of inferior ability succeed Paul- 
linus. XVII. Petilius Cerialis and Julius Frontinus restore affairs to 
their former footing. — The former subdues the Brigantes, the latter the 
Silures. XVIII. Agricola reduces the Ordovices, and the island Mo- 
na. — He finally brings the whole province into a peaceful state. XIX., 
XX. His moderation, prudence, equity, &c., in regulating the affairs 
of his province. XXI. Endeavors to reclaim the natives from their rude 
and unsettled state by making them acquainted with the comforts of 
civilized life. XXII., XXIII. New expeditions discover new nations 
of Britons to the Romans, and fortresses are erected to keep them in 
obedience. — Agricola's candor as regarded the meritorious actions of 



28 C. CORNELIUS TACITUS. 

others. XXIV. Design formed by him of invading Hibernia. XXV.- 
XXVII. The countries situated beyond Bodotria are explored. — The 
Caledonians attack a portion of the forces of Agricola, but, after some 
partial successes, are defeated by him, on his coming up with his other 
forces. — New preparations made by the enemy. XXVIII. A cohort 
of the Usipii, by a strange chance, circumnavigate the island of Britain. 
XXIX. Agricola loses his son, about a year old. — The Britons renew 
the war, under Calgacus as their leader. XXX -XXXII. Address of 
Calgacus to his followers. XXXIII., XXXIV. Address of Agricola to 
his soldiers. XXXV.-XXXVII. Fierce and bloody battle. XXXVIII. 
Victory of the Romans. — Agricola orders Britain to be circumnavigated. 
XXXIX. The account of these operations received by Domitian with 
outward expressions of joy, but inward anxiety. XL . He, nevertheless, 
directs honors to be rendered to Agricola. — The latter returns to Rome, 
and leads a modest and retired life. XLI. Often accused before Do- 
mitian, in his absence, but as often acquitted. XLII. Excuses him- 
self from taking a province as proconsul. XL III. Dies, not without 
suspicion of having been poisoned by Domitian. XL IV. His age at 
the time of his death. — His personal appearance, &c. XLV. Happy 
in having ended his days before the atrocities of Domitian broke forth. 
XL VI. General reflections. 

I. Clarorum virorum facta moresque posteris tradere, 
antiquitus usitatum, ne nostris quidem temporibus, quam- 
quam incuriosa suorum aetas omisit, quotiens magna aliqua 
ac nobilis virtus vicit ac supergressa est vitium parvis 
magnisque civitatibus commune, ignorantiam recti et in- 
vidiam. Sed apud priores ut agere memoratu digna pro- 
num magisque in aperto erat, ita celeberrimus quisque 
ingenio, ad prodendam virtutis memoriam, sine gratia aut 
ambitione, bonaa tantum conscientiae pretio ducebatur. 
Ac plerique suam ipsi vitam narrare fiduciam potius mo- 
rum quam arrogantiam arbitrati sunt : nee id Rutilio et 
Scauro citra fidem aut obtrectationi fuit : adeo virtutes 
iisdem temporibus optime aestimantur, quibus facillime 
gignuntur. 

II. At mihi, nunc narraturo vitam defuncti hominis, 
venia opus fuit ; quam non petissem, ni cursaturus tam 
sasva et infesta virtutibus tempora. Legimus, cum Aru- 
leno Rustico Paetus Thrasea, Herennio Senecioni Priscus 



AGRICOLiE VITA. CAP. II.— III. 29 

Helvidius laudati essent, capitale fuisse : neque in ipsos 
modo auctores, sed in libros quoque eorum saevitum, dele- 
gato triumviris ministerio, ut monumenta clarissimorum 
ingeniorum in comitio ac foro urerentur. Scilicet illo igne 
vocem populi Romani et libertatem senatus et conscien- 
tiam generis humani aboleri arbitrabantur, expulsis in- 
super sapientiae professoribus atque omni bona arte in 
exilium acta, ne quid usquam honestum occurreret. De- 
dimus profecto grande patientiae documentum : et sicut 
vetus aetas vidit quid ultimum in libertate esset, ita nos 
quid in servitute, ademto per inquisitiones et loquendi 
audiendique commercio. Memoriam quoque ipsam cum 
voce perdidissemus, si tam in nostra potestate esset obli- 
visci, quam tacere. 

III. Nunc demum redit animus : et quamquam primo 
statim beatissimi saeculi ortu Nerva Caesar res olim dis- 
sociabiles miscuerit, principatum ac libertatem, augeatque 
quotidie felicitatem temporum Nerva Trajanus, nee spem 
modo ac votum securitas publica sed ipsius voti fiduciam 
ac robur assumserit, natura tamen infirmitatis humanae 
tardiora sunt remedia, quam mala ; et, ut corpora lente 
augescunt, cito exstinguuntur, sic ingenia studiaque op- 
presseris facilius, quam revocaveris. Subit quippe etiam 
ipsius inertiae dulcedo, et invisa primo desidia postremo 
amatur. Quid ? si per quindecim annos, grande mortalis 
aevi spatium, multi fortuitis casibus, promtissimus quis- 
que saevitia principis interciderunt % Pauci, ut ita dix- 
erim, non modo aliorum, sed etiam nostri superstites 
sumus ; exemtis e media vita tot annis, quibus juvenes 
ad senectutem, senes prope ad ipsos exactae aetatis ter- 
minos, per silentium venimus. Non tamen pigebit, vel 
incondita ac rudi voce, memoriam prioris servitutis ac 
testimonium praesentium bonorum composuisse. Hie in- 
terim liber, honori Agricolae soceri mei destinatus, pro- 
fessione pietatis aut laudatus erit, aut excusatus. 



30 C. CORNELIUS TACITUS. 

IV. Cnaeus Julius Agricola, vetere et illustri Foro- 
juliensium colonia ortus, utrumque avum procuratorem 
Caesarum habuit, quae equestris nobilitas est. Pater Julius 
Graecinus senatorii ordinis, studio eloquentiae sapientiae- 
que notus, iisque virtutibus iram Caii Caesaris meritus : 
namque M. Silanum accusare jussus et, quia abnuerat, 
interfectus est. Mater Julia Procilla fuit, rarae castitatis: 
in hujus sinu indulgentiaque educatus, per omnem hones- 
tarum artium cultum pueritiam adolescentiamque transe- 
git. Arcebat eum ab illecebris peccantium, praeter ipsius 
bonam integramque naturam, quod statim parvulus sedem 
ac magistram studiorum Massiliam habuerat, locum G-raeca 
comitate et provinciali parsimonia mixtum ac bene cora- 
positum. Memoria teneo, solitum ipsum narrare, se in 
prima juventa studium philosophice acrius, ultra quam con- 
cession Romano ac senatori, hausisse, ni prudentia matris 
incensum ac flagrant em animum coercuisset. Scilicet sub- 
lime et erectum ingenium pulchritudinem ac speciem ex- 
celsae magnaeque gloriae vehementius quam caute appete- 
bat. Mox mitigavit ratio et aetas : retinuitque, quod est 
difficillimum, ex sapientia modum. 

V. Prima castrorum rudimenta in Britannia Suetonio 
Paulino, diligenti ac moderato duci, approbavit, electus 
quem contubernio aestimaret. Nee Agricola licenter, 
more juvenum qui militiam in lasciviam vertunt, neque 
segniter ad voluptates et commeatus titulum tribunatus et 
inscitiam retulit : sed noscere provinciam, nosci exercitui, 
discere a peritis, sequi optimos, nihil appetere in jacta- 
tionem, nihil ob formidinem recusare, simulque anxius et 
intentus agere. Non sane alias exercitatior magisque in 
ambiguo Britannia fuit : trucidati veterani, incensae co- 
loniae, intercepti exercitus; turn de salute, mox de victo- 
ria certavere. Quae cuncta etsi consiliis ductuque alterius 
agebantur, ac summa rerum et recuperatae provinciae glo- 
ria in ducem cessit, artem et usum et stimulos addidere 



AGRICOL^E VITA. CAP. V.-VII. 31 

juveni : intravitque animum militaris gloria3 cupido, in- 
grata temporibus, quibus sinistra erga eminentes interpre- 
tation nee minus periculum ex magna fama, quam ex mala. 

VI. Hinc ad capessendos magistratus in urbem di- 
gressus, DomitiamDecidianam, splendidis natalibus ortam, 
sibi junxit : idque matrimonium ad majora nitenti decus 
ac robur fuit : vixeruntque mira concordia, per mutuara 
caritatem et invicem se anteponendo; nisi quod in bona 
uxore tanto major laus, quanto in mala plus culpse est. 
Sors qusesturae provinciam Asiam, proconsulem Salvium 
Titianum dedit : quorum neutro corruptus est ; quam- 
quam et provincia dives ac parata peccantibus, et pro- 
consul in omnem aviditatem pronus, quantalibet facilitate 
redemturus esset mutuam dissimulationem mali. Auctus 
est ibi filia, in subsidium et solatium simul : nam filium 
ante sublatum brevi amisit. Mox inter quaesturam ac 
tribunatum plebis atque ipsum etiam tribunatus annum 
quiete et otio transiit, gnarus sub Nerone temporum, qui- 
bus inertia pro sapientia fuit. Idem prseturae tenor et 
silentium : nee enim jurisdictio obvenerat. Ludos et in- 
ania honoris modo rationis atque abundantias duxit, uti 
longe a luxuria, ita famae propior. Turn electus a Galba 
ad dona templorum recognoscenda, diligentissima conqui- 
sitione fecit, ne cujus alterius sacrilegium respublica quam 
Neronis sensisset. 

VII. Sequens annus gravi vulnere animum domumque 
ejus afflixit : nam classis Othoniana, lie enter vaga, dum 
Intemelios (Liguriaa pars est) hostiliter populatur, matrem 
Agricolas in prgediis suis interfecit; praediaque ipsa et 
magnam patrimonii partem diripuit, quaa causa caedis 
fuerat. Igitur ad solennia pietatis profectus Agricola, 
nuntio affectati a Vespasiano imperii deprehensus, ac 
statim in partes transgressus est. Initia principatus ac 
statum urbis Mucianus regebat, admodum juvene Domi- 
tiano, et ex paterna fortuna tantum licentiam usurpante. 



32 C. CORNELIUS TACITUS. 

Is missum ad delectus agendos Agricolam, integreque ac 
strenue versatum, vicesimge legioni, tarde ad sacramentum 
transgressae, praeposuit, ubi decessor seditiose agere nar- 
rabatur; quippe legatis quoque consularibus nimia ac 
formidolosa erat ; nee legatus praetorius ad cohibendum 
potens, incertum, suo an militum ingenio : ita successor 
simul, et ultor electus, rarissima moderatione maluit videri 
invenisse bonos, quam fecisse. 

VIII. Praeerat tunc Britanniae Vettius Bolanus, placi- 
dius, quam feroci provincia dignum est : temperavit Agri- 
cola vim suam, ardoremque compescuit, ne incresceret, 
peritus obsequi, eruditusque utilia honestis miscere. Brevi 
deinde Britannia consularem Petilium Cerialem accepit. 
Habuerunt virtutes spatium exemplorum. Sed primo 
Cerialis modo labores et discrimina, mox et gloriam com- 
municabat : saepe parti exercitus in experimentum, ali- 
quando majoribus copiis ex eventu praefecit : nee Agri- 
cola umquam in suam famam gestis exsultavit ; ad aucto- 
rem et ducem, ut minister, fortunam referebat. Ita virtute 
in obsequendo, verecundia in prasdicando, extra invidiam, 
nee extra gloriam erat. 

IX. Revertentem ab legatione legionis divus Vespasi- 
anus inter patricios adscivit, ac deinde provinciae Aqui- 
taniae praeposuit, splendidae in primis dignitatis, admi- 
nistratione ac spe consulatus, cui destinarat. Credunt 
plerique, militaribus ingeniis subtilitatem deesse ; quia 
castrensis jurisdictio secura et obtusior, ac plura manu 
agens, calliditatem fori non exerceat. Agricola naturali 
prudentia, quam vis inter togatos, facile justeque agebat. 
Jam vero tempora curarum remissionumque divisa. Ubi 
conventus ac judicia poscerent, gravis, intentus, severus, 
et saepius misericors : ubi officio satisfactum, nulla ultra 
potestatis persona: tristitiam et arrogantiam et avaritiam 
exuerat : nee illi, quod est rarissimum, aut facilitas auc- 
toritatem, aut severitas amorem deminuit. Integritatem 



AGRICOLAE VITA. CAP. IX.-X. 33 

atque abstinentiam in tanto viro referre, injuria virtutum 
fuerit. Ne famam quidem, cui saepe etiam boni indulgent, 
ostentanda virtute aut per artem quaesivit : procul ab 
aemulatione adversus collegas, procul a contentione ad 
versus procuratores, et vincere inglorium, et atteri sor- 
didum arbitrabatur. Minus triennium in ea legatione 
detentus, ac statim ad spem consulatus revocatus est, 
comitante opinione, Britanniam ei provinciam dari : nullis 
in hoc suis sermonibus, sed quia par videbatur. Haud 
semper errat fama, aliquando et elegit. Consul egregiae 
turn spei filiam juveni mihi despondit, ac post consulatum 
collocavit; et statim Britanniae praepositus est, adjecto 
pontificatus sacerdotio. 

X. Britanniae situm populosque, multis scrip toribus 
memoratos, non in comparationem curae ingeniive referam, 
sed quia turn primum perdomita est ; itaque, quae priores, 
nondum comperta, eloquentia percoluere, rerum fide tra- 
dentur. Britannia insularum, quas Roraana notitia com- 
plectitur, maxima, spatio ac coelo in orientem Germanise, 
in occidentem Hispaniae obtenditur : Gallis in meridiem 
etiam inspicitur : septemtrionalia ejus, nullis contra terris, 
vasto atque aperto mari pulsantur. Form am totius Bri- 
tanniae Livius veterum, Fabius Rusticus recentium elo- 
quentissimi auctores, oblongae scutulae vel bipenni as- 
similavere : et est ea facies citra Caledoniam, unde et in 
universum fama est transgressa : sed immensum et enorme 
spatium procurrentium extremo jam littore terrarum velut 
in cuneum tenuatur. Hanc oram novissimi maris tunc 
primum Romana classis circumvecta insulam esse Bri- 
tanniam affirmavit, ac simul incognitas ad id tempus in- 
sulas, quas Orcadas vocant, invenit domuitque. Dispecta 
est et Thule, quam hactenus nix et hiems abdebat ; sed 
mare pigrum et grave remigantibus perbibent ne ventis 
quidem perinde attolli : credo, quod rariores terrae mon- 
tesque, causa ac materia tempestatum, et profunda moles 

B2 



34 C. CORNELIUS TACITUS. 

continui maris tardius impellitur. Naturam oceani atque 
aestus neque quaerere hujus operis est, ac multi retulere: 
unura addiderim : nusquam latius dominari mare, multum 
fluminum hue atque illuc ferre,neclittore tenus accrescere 
aut resorberi, sed influere penitus atque ambire, et jugis 
etiam atque montibus inseri velut in suo. 

XI. Ceterum Britanniam qui mortales initio coluerint, 
indigenae an advecti, ut inter barbaros, parum compertum. 
Habitus corporum varii: atque ex eo argumenta: namque 
rutilae Caledoniam habitantium comae, magni artus Ger- 
manicam originem asseverant. Silurum colorati vultus, et 
torti plerumque crines, et posita contra Hispania, Iberos 
veteres trajecisse easque sedes occupasse, fidem faciunt. 
Proximi Gallis et similes sunt, seu durante originis vi, seu 
procurrentibus in diversa terris positio coeli corporibus 
habitum dedit : in universum tamen aestimanti, Gallos 
vicinum solum occupasse, credibile est. Eorum sacra 
deprehendas superstitionum persuasione : sermo haud 
multum diversus : in deposcendis periculis eadem audacia, 
et, ubi advenere, in detrectandis eadem formido : plus 
tamen ferociae Britanni praeferunt, ut quos nondum longa 
pax emollient. Nam Gallos quoque in bellis floruisse 
accepimus : mox segnitia cum otio intravit, amissa virtute 
pariter ac libertate. Qu od Britannorum olim victis e venit ; 
ceteri manent quales Galli fuerunt. 

XII. In pedite robur : quaedam nationes et curru prceli- 
antur : honestior auriga, clientes propugnant : olim regi- 
bus parebant, nunc per principes factionibus et studiis 
trahuntur: nee aliud adversus validissimas gentes pro no- 
bis utilius, quam quod in commune non consulunt. Rarus 
duabus tribusque civitatibus ad propulsandum commune 
periculum conventus : ita, dum singuli pugnant, universi 
vincuntur. Caelum crebris imbribus ac nebulis foedum ; 
asperitas frigorum abest. Dierum spatia ultra nostri orbis 
mensuram, et nox clara et extrema Britanniae parte bre- 



AGRICOLAE VITA. CAP. XII.-XIV. 35 

vis, ut finem atque initium lucis exiguo discrimine inter- 
noscas. Quod si nubes non officiant, adsjpici per noctem 
solis f vigor em, nee occidere et exsurgere, sed transire affir- 
mant. Scilicet extrema et plana terrarum humili umbra 
non erigunt tenebras, infraque ccelum et sidera nox cadit. 
Solum, praeter oleam vitemque et cetera calidioribus terris 
oriri sueta, patiens frugum, fecundum : tarde mitescunt, 
cito proveniunt : eadem utriusque rei causa, multus humor 
terrarum ccelique. Fert Britannia aurum et argentum et 
alia met alia, pretium victorias : gignit et oceanus margarita, 
sed subfusca et liventia. Quidam artem abesse legentibus 
arbitrantur : nam in rubro mari viva ac spirantia saxis 
avelli, in Britannia,, prout expulsa sint, colligi : ego faci- 
lius crediderim naturam margaritis deesse quam nobis 
avaritiam. 

XIII. Ipsi Britanni delectum ac tributa et injuncta im- 
perii munera impigre obeunt si injuriae absint : has gegre 
tolerant, jam domiti ut pareant, nondum ut serviant. 
Igitur primus omnium Romanorum divus Julius cum ex- 
ercitu Britanniam ingressus, quamquam prospera pugna 
terruerit incolas, ac littore potitus sit, potest videri osten- 
disse posteris, non tradidisse. Mox bella civilia, et in 
rempublicam versa principum arma, ac longa oblivio 
Britanniae etiam in pace. Consilium id divus Augustus 
vocabat, Tiberius praeceptum. Agitasse C. Caesarem de 
intranda Britannia satis constat, ni velox ingenio, mobilis 
poenitentia, et ingentes adversus Germaniam conatus 
frustra fuissent. Divus Claudius auctor operis, transvectis 
legionibus auxiliisque, et assumto in partem rerum Ves- 
pasiano: quod initium venturae mox fortunae fuit. Domitae 
gentes, capti reges, et monstratus fatis Vespasianus. 

XIV. Consularium primus Aulus Plautius praepositus, 
ac subinde Ostorius Scapula, uterque bello egregius : re- 
dactaque paulatim in formam provinciae proxima pars 
Britanniae : addita insuper veteranorum colonia. Quaedam 



36 



C. CORNELIUS TACITUS. 



civitates Cogiduno regi donatse (is ad nostram usque 
memoriam fidissimus mansit) vetere ac jam pridem recepta 
Populi Romani consuetudine, ut haberet instrumenta ser- 
vitutis et reges. Mox Didius G-allus parta a prioribus 
continuit, paucis admodum castellis in ulteriora promotis, 
per quae fama aucti officii quaereretur. Didium Veranius 
excepit, isque intra annum exstinctus est. Suetonius hinc 
Paulinus biennio prosperas res habuit, subactis nationibus 
firmatisque praesidiis : quorum fiducia Monam insulam, 
ut vires rebellious ministrantem, aggressus, terga occasioni 
patefecit. 

XV. Namque absentia legati remoto metu, Britanni 
agitare inter se mala servitutis, conferre injurias et inter- 
pretando accendere : nihil profici patientia, nisi ut gra- 
viora, tamquam ex facili tolerantibus, imperentur. Sin- 
gulos sibi olim reges fuisse, nunc binos imponi, e quibus 
legatus in sanguinem, procurator in bona sceviret : ceque 
discordiam prcepositorum, ceque concordiam, subjectis ex- 
itiosam : alterius manus, centuriones alterius, vim et con- 
tumelias miscere. Nihil jam cupiditati, nihil libidini 
exceptum. In proelio fortiorem esse, qui spoliet : nunc ab 
ignavis pier um que et imbellibus eripi domos, abstrahi liberos, 
injungi delectus, tamquam mori tantum pro patria nescienti- 
bus. Quantum enim transisse militum, si sese Britanni 
numerent? sic Germanias excussisse jugum, et fiumine, non 
oceano, defendi : sibi patriam, conjuges, parentes illis ava- 
ritiam et luxuriam causas belli esse : recessuros, ut divus 
Julius recessisset, mo do virtutes majorum suorum cemula- 
rentur. Neve prcelii unites aut alterius eventu pavescerent : 
plus impetus, major em constantiam, penes miseros esse. Jam 
Britannorum etiam deos misereri, qui Romanum ducem 
absentem, qui relegatum in alia insula exercitum detinerent : 
jam ipsos, quod difficillimum fuerit, deliberare : porro 
in ejusmodi consiliis periculosius esse deprehendi, quam 
audere. 



VITA AGRICOLA. CAP. XVI.-XVII. 37 

XVI. His atque talibus invicem instincti, Boadicea, 
generis regii femina, duce (neque enim sexum in imperiis 
discernunt) sumsere universi bellum : ac sparsos per 
castella milites consectati, expugnatis praesidiis, ipsam 
coloniam invasere, ut sedem servitutis : nee ullum in bar- 
baris ssevitia3 genus omisit ira et victoria. Quod nisi 
Paulinus cognito provinciae motu propere subvenisset, 
amissa Britannia foret : quam unius proelii fortuna veteri 
patientiae restituit, tenentibus arma plerisque, quos con- 
scientia defectionis et propius ex legato timor agitabat. 
Hie cum egregius cetera, arroganter in deditos, et, ut 
suae quoque injuriae ultor, durius consuleret, missus Petro- 
nius Turpilianus, tamquam exorabilior, et delictis hostium 
novus eoque pcenitentiae mitior, compositis prioribus, nihil 
ultra ausus, Trebellio Maximo provinciam tradidit. Tre- 
bellius segnior, et nullis castrorum experimentis, comitate 
quadam curandi provinciam tenuit. Didicere jam barbari 
quoque ignoscere,vitiis blandientibus; et interventus civil- 
ium armorum praebuit justam segnitiae excusationem. 
Sed discordia laboratum, cum assuetus expeditionibus 
miles otio lasciviret. Trebellius, fuga ac latebris vitata 
exercitus ira, indecorus atque humilis, precario mox prae- 
fuit : ac velut pacti, exercitus licentiam, dux salutem, haec 
seditio sine sanguine stetit. Nee Vettius Bolanus, ma- 
nentibus adhuc civilibus bellis, agitavit Britanniam dis- 
ciplina : eadem inertia erga hostes, similis petulantia 
castrorum : nisi quod innocens Bolanus, et nullis delictis 
invisus, caritatem paraverat loco auctoritatis. 

XVII. Sed, ubi cum cetero orbe Vespasianus et Britan- 
niam reciperavit, magni duces, egregii exercitus, minuta 
hostium spes. Et terrorem statim intulit Petilius Cerialis, 
Brigantum civitatem, quae numerosissima provinciae totius 
perhibetur, aggressus : multa proelia, et aliquando non 
incruenta : magnamque Brigantum partem aut victoria 
amplexus, aut bello. Et cum Cerialis quidem alterius 



38 C. CORNELIUS TACITUS. 

successoris curam famamque obruisset, sustinuit quoque 
molem Julius Frontinus, vir magnus, quantum licebat, 
validamque et pugnacem Silurum gentem armis subegit, 
super virtutem hostium locorum quoque difficultates eluc- 
tatus. 

XVIII. Hunc Britanniae statum, has bellorum vices 
media jam aestate transgressus Agricola invenit, cum et 
milites, velut omissa expeditione, ad securitatem, et hostes 
ad occasionem, verterentur. Ordovicum civitas haud 
multo ante adventum ejus, alam in finibus suis agentem, 
prope universam obtriverat : eoque initio erecta provin- 
cia, ut quibus bellum volentibus erat, probare exemplum 
aut recentis legati animum opperiri. Turn Agricola — 
quamquam transacta sestas, sparsi per provinciam numeri, 
preesumta apud militem illius anni quies (tarda et con- 
traria bellum inchoaturo), et plerisque custodiri suspecta 
potius videbatur — ire obviam discrimini statuit; con- 
tractisque legionum vexillis et modica auxiliorum manu, 
quia in sequum degredi Ordovices non audebant, ipse ante 
agmen, quo ceteris par animus simili periculo esset, erexit 
aciem; csesaque prope universa gente, non ignarus, in- 
standum famse, ac, prout prima cessissent, fore universa, 
Monam insulam (cujus posse ssione revocatum Paulinum 
rebellione totias Britanniee supra memoravi) redigere in 
potestatem animo intendit. Sed, ut in dubiis consiliis, 
naves deerant ; ratio et constantia ducis transvexit. De- 
positis omnibus sarcinis, lectissimos auxiliarium, quibus 
nota vada et patrius nandi usus, quo simul seque et arma 
et equos regunt, ita repente immisit, ut obstupefacti hostes, 
qui classem, qui naves, qui mare exspectabant, nihil ar- 
duum aut invictum crediderint sic ad bellum venientibus. 
Ita petita pace ac dedita insula, clarus ac magnus haberi 
Agricola, quippe cui ingredient! provinciam, quod tempus 
alii per ostentation em, aut officiorum ambitum transigunt, 
labor et periculum placuisset. Nee Agricola prosperitate 



AGRICOLiE VITA. CAP. XVIII.-XX. 39 

rerum in vanitatem usus expeditionem aut victoriam vo- 
cabat victos continuisse : ne laureatis quidem gesta prose- 
cutus est, sed ipsa dissimulaticme famae famam auxit, 
aestimantibus quanta futuri spe tam magna tacuisset. 

XIX. Ceterum animorum provinciae prudens, simulque 
doctus per aliena experimenta, parum profici armis, si 
injurise sequerentur, causas bellorum statuit excidere. A 
se suisque orsus, primum domum suam coercuit; quod 
plerisque haud minus arduum est,quam provinciam regere. 
Nihil per libertos servosque publican rei : non studiis pri- 
vatis, nee ex commendatione aut precibus centurionum 
milites ascire, sed optimum quemque fidelissimum putare : 
omnia scire, non omnia exsequi : parvis peccatis veniam, 
magnis severitatem commodare : nee poena semper, sed 
saepius pcenitentia contentus esse : officiis et administra- 
tionibus potius non peccaturos praeponere, quam damnare 
cum peccassent. Frumenti et tributorum auctionem 
aequalitate munerum mollire, circumcisis quae in quaestum 
reperta ipso tributo gravius tolerabantur. Namque per 
ludibrium assidere clausis horreis, et emere ultro frumenta, 
ac vendere pretio cogebantur. Devortia itinerum et lon- 
ginquitas regionum indicebatur, ut civitates a proximis 
hibernis in remota et avia deferrent, donee, quod omnibus 
in promtu erat, paucis lucrosum fieret. 

XX. Haec primo statim anno comprimendo, egregiam 
famam paci circumdedit ; quae vel incuria vel tolerantia 
priorum haud minus quam bellum timebatur. Sed, ubi aes- 
tas advenit, contracto exercitu, militum in agmine laudare 
modestiam, disjectos coercere, loca castris ipse capere, 
aestuaria ac silvas ipse praetentare, et nihil interim apud 
hostes quietum pati, quo minus subitis excursibus popu- 
laretur ; atque, ubi satis terruerat, parcendo rursus irrita- 
menta pacis ostentare. Quibus rebus multae civitates, 
quae in ilium diem ex aequo egerant, datis obsidibus, iram 
posuere, et praesidiis castellisque circumdatae tanta ratione 



40 C. CORNELIUS TACITUS. 

curaque, ut nulla ante Britanniae nova pars illacessita 
transient. 

XXI. Sequens hiems saluberrimis consiliis absumta : 
namque, ut homines dispersi ac rudes, eoque in bella fa- 
ciles, quieti et otio per voluptates assuescerent, hortari pri- 
vatum, adjuvare publice, ut templa, fora, domus exstrue- 
rent, laudando promtos, et castigando segnes : ita honoris 
aemulatio pro necessitate erat. Jam vero principum filios 
liberalibus artibus erudire, et ingeniaBritannorum studiis 
Grallorum anteferre, ut, qui modo linguam Romanam ab- 
nuebant, eloquentiam eoncupiscerent. Inde etiam habitus 
nostri honor et frequens toga : paulatimque discessum ad 
delinimenta vitiorum, porticus et balnea et conviviorum 
elegantiam : idque apud imperitos humanitas vocabatur, 
cum pars servitutis esset. 

XXII. Tertius expeditionum annus novas gentes ape- 
ruit, vastatis usque ad Taum (aestuario nomen est) nationi- 
bus : qua formidine territi hostes, quamquam conflictatum 
saevis tempestatibus exercitum lacessere non ausi; ponen- 
disque insuper castellis spatium fuit. Adnotabant periti, 
non alium ducem opportunitates locorum sapientius le- 
gisse ; nullum ab Agricola positum castellum aut vi hostium 
expugnatum, aut pactione ac fuga desertum. Crebras 
eruptiones ; nam adversus moras obsidionis annuis copiis 
firmabantur. Ita intrepida ibi hiems, et sibi quisque 
praesidio, irritis hostibus eoque desperantibus, quia soliti 
plerumque damna asstatis hibernis eventibus pensare, turn 
aestate atque hieme juxta pellebantur. Nee Agricola 
umquam per alios gesta avidus intercepit : seu centurio, 
seu praefectus, incorruptum facti testem habebat. Apud 
quosdam acerbior in conviciis narrabatur ; ut bonis comis 
erat, ita adversus malos injucundus : ceterum ex iracundia 
nihil supererat ; secretum et silentium ejus non timeres. 
Honestius putabat offendere, quam odisse. 

XXIII. Quarta aestas obtinendis, quae percurrerat, in- 



AGRICOLA VITA. CAP. XXIII.-XXV. 41 

sumta ; ac, si virtus exercituum et Romani nominis gloria 
pateretur, inventus in ipsa Britannia terminus. Nam 
Clota et Bodotria, diversi maris aestibus per immensum 
revectae, angusto terrarum spatio dirimuntur : quod turn 
prassidiis firmabatur : atque omnis propior sinus tenebatur, 
summotis velut in aliam insulam hostibus. 

XXIV. Quinto expeditionum anno nave prima trans- 
gressus, ignotas ad id tempus gentes crebris simul ac 
prosperis proeliis domuit : eamque partem Britanniae, quae 
Hiberniam adspicit, copiis instruxit in spem magis, quam 
ob formidinem : siquidem Hibernia, medio inter Britan- 
niam atque Hispaniam sita et Gallico quoque mari oppor- 
tuna, valentissimam imperii partem magnis invicem usibus 
miscuerit. Spatium ejus, si Britanniae comparetur, an- 
gustius, nostri maris insulas superat. Solum coelumque 
et ingenia cultusque hominum haud multum a Britannia 
differunt. Melius aditus portusque per commercia et 
negotiatores cogniti. Agricola expulsum seditione do- 
mestica unum ex regulis gentis exceperat, ac specie 
amicitiae in occasionem retinebat. Saepe ex eo audivi, 
legione una et modicis auxiliis debellari obtinerique Hi- 
berniam posse. Idque etiam adversus Britanniam pro- 
futurum, si Romana ubique arma, et velut e conspectu 
libertas tolleretur. 

XXV. Ceterum aestate, qua sextum officii annum in- 
cboabat, amplexus civitates trans Bodotriam sitas, quia 
motus universarum ultra gentium et infesta hostili exercitu 
itinera timebantur, portus classe exploravit; quae, ab 
Agricola primum assumta in partem virium, sequebatur 
egregia specie, cum simul terra simul mari bellum impel- 
leretur, ac saepe iisdem castris pedes equesque et nauticus 
miles, mixti copiis et laetitia, sua quisque facta, suos casus 
attollerent ; ac modo silvarum et montium profunda, modo 
tempestatum ac fluctuum adversa, hinc terra et hostis, hinc 
victus oceanus militari jactantia compararentur. Britan- 



42 C. CORNELIUS TACITUS. 

nos quoque, ut ex captivis audiebatur, visa classis obstupe- 
faciebat, tamquam aperto maris sui secreto ultimum victis 
perfugium clau'deretur. Ad manus et arma conversi 
Caledoniam incolentes populi, paratu magno, majore fama 
(uti mos est de ignotis) oppugnasse ultro, castella adorti 
metum ut provocantes addiderant; regrediendumque citra 
Bodotriam, et excedendum potius quam pellerentur, specie 
prudentium ignavi admonebant ; cum interim cognoscit, 
hostes pluribus agminibus irrupturos. Ac, ne superante 
numero et peritia locorum circumiretur, diviso et ipse in 
tres partes exercitu incessit. 

XXVI. Quod ubi cognitum hosti, mutato repente con- 
silio, universi nonarri legionem, ut maxime invalidam, 
nocte aggressi, inter somnum ac trepidationem csesis vigili- 
bus, irrupere. Jamque in ipsis castris pugnabant, cum Ag- 
ricola, iter hostium ab exploratoribus edoctus et vestigiis 
insecutus, velocissimos equitum peditumque assultare ter- 
gis pugnantium jubet, mox ab universis adjici clamorem : 
et propinqua luce fulsere signa : ita ancipiti malo territi 
Britanni ; et Romanis redit animus, ac, securi pro salute, 
de gloria certabant. Ultro quin etiam irrupere ; et fuit 
atrox in ipsis portarum angustiis proelium, donee pulsi 
hostes ; utroque exercitu certante, his, ut tulisse opem, 
illis, ne eguisse auxilio viderentur. Quod nisi paludes et 
silvse fugientes texissent, debellatum ilia victoria foret. 

XXVII. Cujus constantia ac fama ferox exercitus, nihil 
virtuti sum invium ; penetrandam Caledoniam, invenien- 
dumquc tandem Britannice terminum continuo prceliorum 
cursu, fremebant : atque illi modo cauti ac sapientes, 
promti post even turn ac magniloqui erant : iniquissima 
hasc bellorum conditio est; prospera omnes sibi vindicant, 
adversa uni imputantur. At Britanni non virtute, sed 
occasione et arte ducis rati, nihil ex arrogantia remittere, 
quo minus juventutem armarent, conjuges ac liberos in 
loca tuta transferrent, ccetibus ac sacrificiis conspirationem 



AGRICOLiE VITA. CAP. XXVII.-XXIX. 43 

civitatum sancirent : atque ita irritatis utrimque animis 
discessum. 

XXVIII. Eadem aestate cohors Usipiorum, per Germa- 
nias conscripta, et in Britanniam transmissa, magnum ac 
memorabile facinus ausa est. Occiso centurione ac militi- 
bus, qui, ad tradendam disciplinam immixti manipulis, 
exemplum et rectores habebantur, tres liburnicas adactis 
per vim gubernatoribus ascendere : et uno remigrante, 
suspectis duobus eoqueinterfectis,nondum vulgato rumore, 
ut miraculum, praevehebantur. Mox hac atque ilia rapti, 
et cum plerisque Britannorum sua defensantium proelio 
congressi, ac saepe victores, aliquando pulsi, eo ad ex- 
tremum inopiae venere, ut infirmissimos suorum, mox sorte 
ductos, vescerentur. Atque ita circumvecti Britanniam, 
amissis per inscitiam regendi navibus, pro praedonibus 
habiti, primum a Suevis, mox a Frisiis intercepti sunt : ac 
fuere, quos per commercia venumdatos, et in nostram usque 
ripam mutatione ementium adductos, indicium tanti casus 
illustravit. 

XXIX. Initio aestatis Agricola, domestico vulnere ictus, 
anno ante natum filium amisit. Quern casum neque, ut 
plerique fortium virorum, ambitiose, neque per lamenta 
rursus ac mcerorem muliebriter tulit ; et in luctu bellum 
inter remedia erat. Igitur pragmissa classe, quae pluribus 
locis praedata magnum et incertum terrorem faceret, ex- 
pedito exercitu, cui ex Britannis fortissimos et longa pace 
exploratos addiderat, ad montem Grampium pervenit, 
quern jam hostes insederant. Nam Britanni, nihil fracti 
pugnae prioris eventu, et ultionem aut servitium exspec- 
tantes, tandemque docti commune periculum concordia 
propulsandum, legationibus et foederibus omnium civita- 
tum vires exciverant. Jamque super triginta millia arma- 
torum aspiciebantur, et adhuc affluebat omnis juventus, 
et quibus cruda ac viridis senectus, clari bello, ac sua 
quisque decora gestantes ; cum inter plures duces virtute 



44 C. CORNELIUS TACITUS. 

et genere preestans, nomine Calgacus, apud contractam 
multitudinem, prcelium poscentem, in hunc modum locu- 
tus fertur: — 

XXX. Quotiens causas belli et necessitatem nostram in- 
tueor, magnus mihi animus est, hodiernum diem consensum- 
que vestrum initium libertatis totius Britannia fore. Nam 
et universi servitutis expertes, et nulla ultra terra, ac ne 
mare quidem securum, imminente nobis classe Romana : ita 
prozlium atque arma, quafortibus honesta, eadem etiam ig- 
navis tutissima sunt. Prior es pugna, quibus adversus Ro- 
manos varia fortuna certatum est, spem ac subsidium in 
nostris manibus habebant : quia nobilissimi totius Britan- 
nice, eoque in ipsis penetralibus siti, nee servientium littora 
aspicientes, oculos quoque a contactu do?ninationis inviola- 
tos habebamus. Nos, terrarum ac libertatis extremos, re- 
cessus ipse ac sinus fama in hunc diem defendit : nunc 
terminus Britannia patet ; atque omne ignotum pro mag- 
nifico est. Sed nulla jam ultima gens, nihil nisi fiuctus et 
saxa ; et infestiores Romani ; quorum superbiam frustra 
per obsequium et modestiam ejfugeris. Raptores orbis, 
postquam cuncta vastantibus defuere terrce, et mare scru- 
tantur ; si locuples hostis est, avari ; si pauper, ambitiosi : 
quos non Oriens, non Occidens satiaverit : soli omnium opes 
atque inopiam pari qffectu concupiscunt. Auferre, truci- 
dare, rapere,falsis nominibus imperium ; atque, ubi solitu- 
dinem faciunt, pacem appellant. 

XXXI. Liberos cuique ac propinquos suos natura caris- 
simos esse voluit : hi per delectus ^ alibi servituri, auferuntur. 
Conjuges sororesque, etsi hostilem libidinem effugiant, no- 
mine amicorum atque hospitum polluuntur. Bona fortu- 
nasque in tributum egerunt, annos infrumentum: corpora 
ipsa ac manus, silvis ac paludibus emuniendis, verbera inter 
ac contumelias, conterunt. Nata servituti mancipia semel 
veneunt, atque ultro a dominis aluntur : Britannia servitu- 
tem suam quotidie emit, quotidie pascit. Ac, sicut in f ami- 



AGRICOLA.— CAP. XXXI.-XXXII. 45 

lia recentissimus quisque servorum et conservis ludibrio est; 
sic, in hoc orbis terrarum vetere famulatu, novi nos et viles 
in excidium petimur. Neque enim arva nobis, aut metalla, 
aut portus sunt, quibus exercendis reservemur. Virtus por- 
ro acferocia subjectorum ingrata imperantibus : et longin- 
quitas ac secretum ipsum quo tutius, eo suspectius. Ita, 
sublata spe Venice, tandem sumite animum, tarn quibus 
salus, quam quibus gloria carissima est. Brigantes femina 
duce exurere coloniam, expugnare castra, ac nisi felicitas in 
socordiam vertisset, exuere jugum potuere : nos integri et in- 
domiti, et libertatem non in prcesentia laturi, primo statim 
congressu non ostendamus quos sibi Caledonia viros sepo- 
suerit ? 

XXXII. An eandem Romanis in bello virtutem, quam 
in pace lasciviam, adesse creditis ? Nostris illi discessioni- 
bus ac discordiis clari, vitia hostium in gloriam exercitus 
sui vertunt ; quern contractum ex diversissimis gentibus, ut 
secundai res tenent, ita adverse dissolvent; nisi si Gallos 
et Germanos et (pudet dictuj Britannorum plerosque, licet 
dominationi alienee sanguinem commodent, diutius tamen 
hostes quam servos, Jide et affectu teneri putatis : metus et 
terror est, infirma vincula caritatis ; qua ubi removeris, 
qui timere desierint, odisse incipient. Omnia victorice in- 
citamenta pro nobis sunt: nullce Romanos conjuges ac- 
cendunt; nulli par entes fugam exprobraturi sunt ; aut nulla 
pier is que p atria, aut alia est: paucos numero, circum trepi- 
dos ignorantia, ccelum ipsum ac mare et silvas, ignota om- 
nia circumspectantes, clausos quodammodo ac vinctos dii 
nobis tradiderunt. Ne terreat vanus aspectus et auri ful- 
gor atque argenti, quod neque tegit, neque vulnerat. In 
ipsa hostium acie inveniemus nostras manus : agnoscent 
Britanni suam causam : recordabuntur Galli priorcm liber- 
tatem : deserent illos ceteri Germani, tamquam nuper Usipii 
reliquerunt. Nee quidquam ultra for midinis : vacua cas- 
tella, senum colonice, inter male parentes et injuste impe- 



46 C. CORNELIUS TACITUS. 

rantes cegra municipia et discordantia. Hie dux, hie ex- 
ercitus : ibi tributa et metalla et ceterce servientium poena ; 
quas in ceternum perferre, aut statim ulcisci in hoc campo 
est. Proinde, ituri in aciem, et major es vestros et poster os 
cogitate. 

XXXIII. Excepere orationem alacres et barbari moris 
cantu et fremiti! clamoribusque dissonis. Jamque agmi- 
na,et armorum fulgores audentissimi cujusque procursu : 
simul instruebatur acies ; cum Agricola, quamquam laetum 
et vix munimentis coercitum militem adhortatus, it a dis- 
seruit : Octavus annus est, commilitones, ex quo virtute et 
auspiciis imperii Romani fide atque opera vestra Britan- 
niam vicistis. Tot expeditionibus, tot prodiis, seu fortitu- 
dine adversus hostes, seu patientia ac labor e pcene adversus 
ipsam rerum naturam opusfuit. Neque me militum, neque 
vos duels posnituit. Ergo egressi, ego veterum legatorum, 
vos priorum exercituum terminos, finem Britannice, non 
fama, nee rumore, sed castris et armis tenemus. Inventa 
Britannia, et sabacta. Equidem s&pe in agmine, cum vos 
paludes montesve et fiumina fatigarent, fortissimi cujusque 
voces audiebam, Quando dabitur hostis, quando acies ? 
Veniunt, e latebris suis extrusi; et vota virtusque in aperto, 
omniaque prona victoribus, atque eadem victis adversa. 
Nam, ut superasse tantum itineris, silvas evasisse, transisse 
cestuaria, pulchrum ac decorum infrontem; ita fugientibus 
periculosissima, quce hodie prosperrima sunt. Neque enim 
nobis aut locorum eadem notitia aut commeatuum eadem 
abundantia ; sed manus et arma et in his omnia. Quod 
ad me attinet, jam pridem mihi decretum est, neque exerci- 
tus, neque ducis terga tuta esse. Proinde et honesta mors 
turpi vita potior ; et incolumitas ac decus eodem loco sita 
sunt : nee inglorium fuerit in ipso terrarum ac naturae fine 
cecidisse. 

XXXIV. Si nova gentes atque ignota acies constitisset, 
aliorum exercituum exemplis vos hortarer: nunc vestra de- 



AGRICOLA. CAP. XXXIV.-XXXV1. 47 

cora recensete, vestros oculos interrogate. It sunt, quos 
proximo anno, unam legionemfurto noctis aggressos, clamor e 
dehellastis : ii ceterorum Britannorum Jug acissimi, ideoque 
tarn diu super stites. Quomodo silvas saltusque penetr anti- 
bus fortissimum quodque animal robore, pavida et inertia 
ipso agminis sono pelluntur , sic acerrimi Britannorum jam 
pridem ceciderunt: reliquus est numerus ignavorum et me- 
tuentium, quos quod tandem invenistis, non restiterunt, sed 
deprehensi sunt novissimi: ideo extremo metu corpora de~ 
jixere in his vestigiis, in quibus pulcfiram et spectabilem vie- 
toriam ederetis. Transigite cum expeditionibus : imponite 
quinquaginta annis magnum diem : approbate reipubliccs 
nunquam exercitui imputari potuisse aut moras belli aut 
causas rebellandi. 

XXXV. Et alloquente adhuc Agricola militum ardor 
eminebat, et iinem orationis ingens alacritas consecuta est, 
statimque ad arma diseursum. Instinctos ruentesque ita 
disposuit, ut peditum auxilia, quae octo millia erant, me- 
diam aciem firmarent, equitum tria millia cornibus affun- 
derentur: legiones pro vallo stetere, ingens victoriae decus 
citra Romanum sanguinem bellanti, et auximim si pelle- 
rentur. Britannorum acies, in speciem simul ac terrorem, 
editioribus locis constiterat ita, ut primum agmen aequo, 
ceteri per acclive jugum connexi velut insurgerent; media 
eampi covinarius et eques strepitu ac discursu complebat. 
Turn Agricola, superante hostium multitudine, veritus ne 
simul in frontem simul et latera suorum pugnaretur, di- 
ductis ordinibus, quamquam porrectior acies futura erat, 
et arcessendas plerique legiones admonebant, promtior in 
spem et firmus adversis, dimisso equo pedes ante vexilla 
constitit. 

XXXVI. Ac primo congressu eminus certabatur : si- 
mul constantia, simul arte Britanni, ingentibus gladiis et 
brevibus cetris, missilia nostrorum vitare, vel excutere, 
atque ipsi magnam vim telorum superfundere ; donee 



48 C. CORNELIUS TACITUS. 

Agricola tres Batavorum cohortes ac Tungrorum duas co- 
hortatus est, ut rem ad mucrones ac man us adducerent : 
quod et ipsis vetustate militiae exercitatum, et hostibus in- 
habile, parva scuta et enormes gladios gerentibus : nam 
Britannorum gladii sine mucrone complexum armorum, 
et in arcto pugnam non tolerabant. Igitur, ut Batavi mis- 
cere ictus, ferire umbonibus, ora foedare, et stratis qui in 
aequo obstiterant, erigere in colles aciem ccepere, ceterae 
cohortes, aemulatione et impetu commixtae, proximos quos- 
que caedere : ac plerique semineces aut integri festinatione 
victoriae relinquebantur. Interim equitum turmae fugere, 
covinarii peditum se prcelio miscuere : et, quamquam re- 
centem terrorem intulerant, den sis tamen hostium agmini- 
bus et inaequalibus locis haerebant ; minimeque equestris 
ea pugnae facies erat, cum aegre diu stantes, simul equo- 
rum corporibus impellerentur, ac saepe vagi currus, exter- 
riti sine rectoribus equi, ut quemque formido tulerat, 
transversos aut obvios incursabant. 

XXXVII. Et Britanni, qui adhuc pugnae expertes 
summa collium insederant, et paucitatem nostrorum vacui 
spernebant, degredi paulatim et circumire terga vincen- 
tium coeperant; ni id ipsum veritus Agricola quattuor 
equitum alas, ad subita belli retentas, venientibus opposu- 
isset, quantoque ferocius accurrerant, tanto acrius pulsos 
in fugam disjecisset. Ita consilium Britannorum in ipsos 
versum; transvectaeque praecepto ducis a fronte pugnan- 
tium alae, aversam hostium aciem invasere. Turn vero 
patentibus locis grande et atrox spectaculum : sequi, vul- 
nerare, capere, atque eosdem, oblatis aliis, trucidare. 
Jam hostium, prout cuique ingenium erat, catervae arma- 
torum paucioribus terga praestare, quidam inermes ultro 
ruere, ac se morti offerre. Passim arma et corpora et 
laceri artus et cruenta humus. Est aliquando etiamvictis 
ira virtusque : postquam silvis appropinquarunt, collecti 
primos sequentium, incautos et locorum ignaros, circum- 



AGRICOL^E VITA. CAP. XXXVII.-XXXIX. 49 

veniebant. Quodni frequens ubique Agricola validas et 
expeditas cohortes, indaginis modo, et, sicubi arctiora 
erant, partem equitum, dimissis equis, simul rariores silvas 
equitem persultare jussisset, acceptum aliquod vulnus per 
nimiam fiduciam foret. Ceterum, ubi compositos firmis 
ordinibus sequi rursus videre, in fugam versi, non agmini- 
bus ut prius, nee alius alium respectantes, rari et vitabundi 
invicem longinqua atque avia petiere. Finis sequendi 
nox et satietas fuit. Caesa hostium ad decern millia: nos- 
trorum trecenti sexaginta cecidere, in quis Aulus Atticus, 
praefectus cohortis, juvenili ardore et ferocia equi hostibus 
illatus. 

XXXVIII. Et nox quidem gaudio praedaque lseta vic- 
toribus : Britanni palantes, mixtoque virorum mulierumque 
ploratu, trahere vulneratos, vocare integros, deserere do- 
mos ac per iram ultro incendere ; eligere latebras et sta- 
tim relinquere ; miscere invicem consilia aliqua, dein 
separare ; aliquando frangi aspectu pignorum suorum, 
saepius concitari : satisque constabat, saevisse quosdam in 
conjuges ac liberos, tamquam misererentur. Proximus 
dies faciem victoriae latius aperuit : vastum ubique silen- 
tium, secreti colles, fumantia procul tecta, nemo explora- 
toribus obvius : quibus in omnem partem dimissis, ubi 
incerta fugao vestigia neque usquam conglobari hostes 
compertum, et exacta jam aestate spargi bellum nequibat, 
in fines Horestorum exercitum deducit. Ibi acceptis ob- 
sidibus, praefecto classis circumvehi Britanniam praecepit: 
datae ad id vires, et praecesserat terror : ipse peditem 
atque equites lento itinere, quo novarum gentium animi 
ipsa transitus mora terrerentur, in hibernis locavit. Et 
simul classis secunda tempestate ac fama Trutulensem 
portum tenuit, unde proximo latere Britanniae lecto omni 
redierat. 

XXXIX. Hunc rerum cursum, quamquam nulla verbo- 
rum jactantia epistolis Agricolae auctum, ut Domitiano 

C 



50 C. CORNELIUS TACITUS. 

moris erat, fronte laetus, pectore anxius excepit. Inerat 
conscientia, derisui fuisse nuper falsum e Germania tri- 
umphum, emtis per commercia, quorum habitus et crines 
in captivorum speciem formarentur : at nunc veram mag- 
namque victoriam, tot millions hostium caesis, ingenti fama 
celebrari. Id sibi maxime formidolosum, privati hominis 
nomen supra principis attolli : frustra studia fori et civilium 
artium decus in silentium acta, si militarem gloriam alius 
occuparet : et cetera utcunque facilius dissimulari, ducis 
boni imperatoriam virtutem esse. Talibus curis exercitus, 
quodque saevae cogitationis indicium erat, secreto suo 
satiatus, optimum in praesentia statuit reponere odium, 
donee impetus famae et favor exercitus languesceret : nam 
etiam turn Agricola Britanniam obtinebat. 

XL. Igitur triumphalia ornamenta et illustris statuce 
honorem et quidquid pro triumpho datur, multo verborum 
honore cumulata,decerni in senatu jubet: additque insuper 
opinionem, Syriam provinciam Agricolae destinari, vacuam 
turn morte Atilii Rufi, consul aris, et majoribus reservatam. 
Credidere plerique, libertum ex secretioribus ministeriis 
missum ad Agricolam, codicillos, quibus ei Syria dabatur, 
tulisse, cum praecepto, ut, si in Britannia foret, traderen- 
tur ; eumque libertum in ipso freto oceani obvium Agri- 
colae, ne appellato quidem eo, ad Domitianum remeasse; 
sive verum istud, sive ex ingenio principis fictum ac com- 
positum est. Tradiderat interim Agricola successori suo 
provinciam quietam tutamque. Ac, ne notabilis celebri- 
tate et frequentia occurrentium introitus esset, vitato 
amicorum officio, noctu in urbem, noctu in palatium, ita 
ut praeceptum erat, venit : exceptusque brevi osculo, et 
nullo sermone, turbae servientium immixtus est. Ceterum, 
ut militare nomen, grave inter otiosos, aliis virtutibus 
temperaret, tranquillitatem atque otium penitus auxit, 
cultu modicus, sermone facilis, uno aut altero amicorum 
comitatus : adeo ut plerique, quibus magnos viros per 



AGRICOLA VITA. CAP. XL.-XLII. 51 

ambitionem aestimare mos est, viso aspectoque Agricola 
quaererent famam pauci interpretarentur. 

XLI. Crebro per eos dies apud Domitianum absens 
accusatus, absens absolutus est : causa periculi non crimen 
ullum, aut querela laesi cujusquam, sed infensus virtutibus 
princeps, et gloria viri, ac pessiraum inimicorum genus, 
laudantes. Et ea insecuta sunt reipublicae tempora, quae 
sileri Agricolam non sinerent; tot exercitus in Mcesia 
Daciaque, Germania et Pannonia, temeritate aut per ig- 
naviara ducum amissi : tot militares viri cum tot cohortibus 
expugnati et capti ; nee jam de limite imperii et ripa, sed 
de hibernis legionum et possessione dubitatum. Ita, cum 
damna damnis continuarentur, atque omnis annus funeribus 
et cladibus insigniretur, poscebatur ore vulgi dux Agri- 
cola : comparantibus cunctis vigorem, constantiam, et ex- 
pertum bellis animum cum inertia et formidine reorum. 
Quibus sermonibus satis constat Domitiani quoque aures 
verberatas, dum optimus quisque libertorum amore et 
fide, pessimi malignitate et livore, pronum deterioribus 
principem exstimulabant. Sic Agricola simul suis vir- 
tutibus, simul vitiis aliorum, in ipsam gloriam praeceps 
agebatur. 

XL II. Aderat jam annus, quo .proconsulatum Asiae et 
Africae sortiretur; et occiso Civica nuper, nee Agricolae 
consilium deerat, nee Domitiano exemplum. Accessere 
quidam cogitationum principis periti, qui, iturusne esset 
in provinciam, ultro Agricolam interrogarent : ac primo 
occultius quietem et otium laudare, mox operam suam in 
approbanda excusatione ofFerre : postremo non jam ob- 
scuri, suadentes simul terrentesque, pertraxere ad Domi- 
tianum. Qui paratus simul atione, in arrogantiam compo- 
situs, et audiit preces excusantis, et, cum adnuisset, agi 
sibi gratias passus est: nee erubuit beneficii invidia. Sa- 
larium tamen, proconsulari solitum offerri, et quibusdam a 
se ipso concessum, Agricolae non dedit : sive offensus non 



52 C. CORNELIUS TACITUS. 

petitum, sive ex conscientia, ne, quod vetuerat, vicleretur 
emisse. Proprium humani ingenii est, odisse quem laese- 
ris : Domitiani vero natura praeceps in irarn, et, quo ob- 
scurior, eo irrevocabilior, moderatione tamen prudentia- 
que Agricolae leniebatur : quia non contumacia neque 
inani jactatione libertatis, famam fatumque provocabat. 
Sciant, quibus moris est, illicita mirari, posse etiam sub 
raalis principibus magnos viros esse: obsequiumque ac 
modestiam, si industria ac vigor adsint, eo laudis excedere, 
quo plerique per abrupta, sed in nullum reipublicae usum, 
ambitiosa morte inclaruerunt. 

XLIII. Finis vitae ejus nobis luctuosus, amicis tristis, 
extraneis etiam ignotisque non sine cura fuit. Vulgus 
quoque, et hie aliud agens populus, et ventitavere ad do- 
mum, et per fora et circulos locuti sunt : nee quisquam, 
audita morte Agricolae, aut laetatus est aut statim oblitus 
est. Augebat miserationem constans rumor, veneno inter- 
ceptum. Nobis nihil comperti affirmare ausim : ceterum 
per omnem valetudinem ejus, crebrius quam ex more 
principatus per nuntios visentis, et libertorum primi et 
medicorum intimi venere ; sive cura illud, sive inquisitio 
erat. Supremo quidem die, momenta deficientis per dis- 
positos cursores nuntiata constabat, nullo credente, sic ac- 
celerari quae tristis audiret. Speciem tamen doloris animo 
vultuque prae se tulit, securus jam odii, et qui facilius dis- 
simularet gaudium quam metura. Satis constabat, lecto 
testamento Agricolae, quo coheredem optimae uxori et 
piissimae filiae Domitianum scripsit, laetatum eum velut ho- 
nore judicioque : tarn caeca et corrupta mens assiduis adu- 
lationibus erat, ut nesciret a bono patre non scribi here- 
dem nisi malum principem. 

XLIV. Natus erat Agricola Caio Caesare primum Con- 
sule Idibus Juniis : excessit sexto et quinquagesimo an- 
no, decimo Kalendas Septembris Collega Priscoque con- 
sulibus. Quodsi habitum quoque ejus posteri noscere 



AGRICOLA VITA. CAP. XLIV.-XLV. 53 

velint ; decentior quarn sublimior fuit : nihil metus in 
vultu ; gratia oris supererat : bonum virum facile crede- 
res, magnum libenter. Et ipse quidem, quamquam me- 
dio in spatio integral aetatis ereptus, quantum ad gloriam 
longissimum aevum peregit. Quippe et vera bona, quae 
in virtutibus sita sunt, impleverat, et consularibus ac tri- 
umphalibus ornamentis praedito, quid aliud adstruere for- 
tuna poterat ? Opibus nimiis non gaudebat ; speciosae 
contigerant : filia at que uxore superstitibus, potest videri 
etiam beatus, incolumi dignitate, florente fama, salvis 
arnnitatibus et amicitiis, futura effugisse. Nam, sicuti 
durare in hac beatissimi saeculi luce, ac principem Traja- 
num videre, augurio votisque apud nostras aures omina- 
batur, ita festinatae mortis grande solatium tulit, eva- 
sisse postremum illud tempus, quo Domitianus, non jam 
per intervalla ac spiramenta temporum, sed continuo et 
velut uno ictu, rempublicam exhausit. 

XL V. Non vidit Agricola obsessam curiam, et clausum 
armis senatum, et eadem strage tot consularium caedes, 
tot nobilissimarum feminarum exsilia et fugas. Una ad- 
huc victoria Carus Metius censebatur, et intra Albanam 
arcem sententia Messalini strepebat, et MassaBebius jam 
turn reus erat. Mox nostrae duxere Helvidium in carce- 
rem manus : nos Maurici Rusticique visus, nos innocenti 
sanguine Senecio perfudit. Nero tamen subtraxit oculos, 
jussitque scelera, non spectavit : praecipua sub Domitiano 
miseriarum pars erat, videre et adspici, cum suspiria nostra 
subscriberentur, cum denotandis tot hominum palloribus 
sufficeret saevus ille vultus et rubor, quo se contra pudorem 
muniebat. Tu vero felix, Agricola, non vitae tantum 
claritate, sed etiam opportunitate mortis. Ut perhibent, 
qui interfuerunt novissimis sermonibus tuis, constans et 
libens fatum excepisti ; tamquam pro virili portione inno- 
centiam principi donares. Sed mihi filiaeque, praeter 
acerbitatem parentis erepti, auget moestitiam, quod assi- 



54 C. CORNELIUS TACITUS. 

dere valetudini, fovere deficientem, satiari vultu, com- 
plexu, non contigit. Excepissemus certe mandata voces- 
que, quas penitus animo figeremus. Noster hie dolor, 
nostrum vulnus ; nobis tarn longae absentiae conditione 
ante quadriennium amissus es. Omnia sine dubio, optime 
parentum, assidente amantissima uxore, superfuere honori 
tuo : paucioribus tamen lacrimis compositus es, et novis- 
sima in luce desideravere aliquid oculi tui. 

XLVL Si quis piorum manibus locus, si, ut sapientibus 
placet, non cum corpore exstinguuntur magnae animae, 
placide quiescas, nosque, domum tuam, ab infirmo desi- 
derio et muliebribus lamentis ad contemplationem virtu- 
tum tuarum voces, quas neque lugeri neque plangi fas 
est : admiratione te potius, et immortalibus laudibus, et, 
si natura suppeditet, aemulatu decoremus. Is verus honos, 
ea conjunctissimi cujusque pietas. Id filiae quoque uxori- 
que praeceperim, sic patris, sic mariti memoriam venerari, 
ut omnia facta dictaque ejus secum revolvant, famamque 
ac figuram animi magis quam corporis complectaritur : 
non quia intercedendum putem imaginibus, quae marmore 
aut sere finguntur ; sed ut vultus hominum, ita simulacra 
vultus imbecilla ac mortalia sunt, forma mentis aeterna; 
quam tenere et exprimere, non per alienam materiam et 
artem, sed tuis ipse moribus possis. Quidquid ex Agri- 
cola amavimus, quidquid mirati sumus, manet mansu- 
rumque est in animis hominum, in aeternitate temporum, 
fama rerum. Nam multos veterum, velut inglorios et 
ignobiles, oblivio obruet : Agricola, posteritati narratus et 
traditus, superstes erit. 



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NOTES. 



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NOTES ON THE GERMANIA. 



CHAPTER I. 

Germania omnis. Observe that omnis is here placed after Ger~ i 
mania, because the emphasis falls upon the noun, and the adjective 
is appended to show in what sense the noun is to be taken, namely - 
as referring to Germany Proper, called, also, Germania Transrhena- 
na, to distinguish it from Germania Cisrhenana. (Consult Geograph. 
Index, s. v. Germani.) 

Rcetisque et Pannoniis. We have two conjunctions here, because 
the Reeti and Pannonii were more closely connected with one an- 
other than with the Galli. (Compare c. 3, 7, 28, 34.) As regards 
the Raeti and Pannonii, consult Geographical Index. We have 
written Ratis in the text, as more correct than Rhcctis, just as Rcetia 
is more correct than Rhcetia, a result well established by the lan- 
guage of ancient inscriptions. (Consult Drakenb. ad Liv., v., 33 ; 
Oudend. ad Suet., Aug., 21 ; Niebuhr, Rom. Gesch., vol. i., p. 118; 
Muller, Etrusk., vol. i., p. 162; Orelli, Inscr. hat., n. 491.) 

Sarmatis Dacisque. Consult Geographical Index. The European 
Sarmatians here meant were the Slavonians of a more recent age. 

Mutuo mctu, aut montibus. "By mutual fear, or by mountains," 
t. e., they were either separated from one another by wide interven- 
ing districts of waste land, left purposely uncultivated and deso- 
late, in order to check the inroads of one another, or else by mount- 
ains. The mountains meant are the Carpathian and Bohemian 
mountains. Observe here the peculiar employment of metu and 
montibus, things of an entirely different nature, in connection with 
one another ; and consult Botticher's remarks on the style of Taci- 
tus, appended to this volume, p. xlii. 

Cetera. "The rest of the country." Supply loca. The reference 
is to the northern and western parts. 

Latos sinus, et insularum, &c. " Embracing broad projections of 
land, and islands of vast size." Literally, " vast spaces of islands," 
an instance of the poetical complexion of the style of Tacitus. 
(Consult Botticher, Remarks, &c., p. liv.) The Greeks and Romans 
looked upon that part of Europe north of Germany as composed of 



58 NOTES ON THE GERMANIA. CHAP. I. 

islands, not as forming parts of the continent. These so-called 
islands, therefore, would correspond to the modern Denmark, Nor- 
way, and Sweden. 

Sinus. Erroneously rendered by some " bays." This term is 
applied to any thing that makes a bend, and is most frequently 
used of any thing which is hollow, as a valley, a gulf; but it also 
means a promontory, or a neck of land, where the boundary line 
makes a bend or sweep, and such is its force in the present passage ; 
and the allusion appears to be to the bold projections of the German 
coast along the Ocean and the Baltic, more particularly to what is 
now denominated Jutland, and to the headlands near the mouths 
of the Ems, the Weser, and the Elbe. (Compare Passow, Walther, 
and Gerlach, ad loc, and Voss, ad Virg., Georg., ii., 123.) 

Quos helium aperuit. " Whom war has disclosed to our view." 
By helium is here meant a series, of warlike expeditions. The 
knowledge which the Romans possessed of Germany and the west- 
ern parts of Europe was derived principally from the expeditions 
of Caesar, Drusus Germanicus, Germanicus, and Ahenobarbus. 
(Consult Geograph. Index, s. v. Germani.) 

Rhenus Rceticarum Alpium, &c. The Rhine rose, according to 
Strabo (iv., 5) and Ptolemy (ii., 12), in Mount Adula, a name given 
to a collection of summits answering at the present day to a part 
of the Lepontine Alps. The sources of the Rhine are in this part 
of the Alps, a little to the east of Mount St. Gothard, in the country 
of the Grisons. 

Modico flexu in Occidentem versus. " After having turned by a 
moderate bending toward the west." Observe here the middle 
meaning to be assigned'to versus, and compare note on nee ohligan- 
tur, c. 21. It is better to make versus a participle here, than to con- 
sider it, as some do, a preposition used pleonastically. Ernesti and 
Brotier, indeed, adopt this latter opinion, but without much propriety, 
since Tacitus nowhere else employs such a pleonasm as in . . . . 
versus, or ad ... . versus. The reference in the text is to the bend 
of the Rhine near Arenacum, the modern Arnheim, in the Grand 
Duchy of Baden, not very far from the mouth of the stream. Bek- 
ker, Ruperti, and others erroneously suppose another bend of the 
Rhine to be meant, near Basilea, the modern Basel, or Bale. (Com- 
pare Dilihey, ad loc.) 

Miscetur. " Mingles itself." Observe that miscetur here must 
be regarded rather as a middle than a passive verb. (Compare note 
on versus, immediately preceding.) 

Molli et clementer edito, &c. " From the easy and gently-elevated 



NOTES ON THE GERMANIA. CHAP. I., II. 59 

summit of Mount Abnoba." The MSS. have Arnobce, Arlona, &c. 
The true reading is Abnobce, which was first given as a conjecture 
by Hermolaus Barbarus, and subsequently confirmed by two inscrip- 
tions found in this quarter. Mount Abnoba answers to the northern 
part of the Black Forest, opposite the town of Augusta Rauracorum, 
now Augst. (Compare Gerbert, Hist. S. N. T., iii., 1, 7; ii., 243; 
and Seebode, iV. Arch., 1826, vol. i., p. 153.) 

Plures populos adit. On the right bank, the Vindelici, Norici, Pan- 
nonii, Illyrii, Moesi ; on the left bank, the Hermunduri, Narisci, Mar- 
comanni, Quadi, Daci, Getae, and Bastarnae. (Dilthey, ad loc.) 

Sex meatibus. " By six channels." The number of mouths ap- 
pertaining to this stream is differently given by the ancient writers. 
Herodotus (iv., 7), Dionysius Periegetes, Arrian, Claudian, Eusta- 
thius, and others name five. Pliny (if. iV., iv., 24) and some other 
authorities give six. Strabo, Ovid, Mela, Solinus, and Ammianus 
Marcellinus make seven. Tacitus appears to unite the two latter 
accounts. At the present day the Danube enters the sea by seven 
mouths. 

Erumpat. A better reading than erumpit, and sanctioned by the 
best MSS. Passow makes a singular error, when he asserts, in his 
comments on the present passage, and in defence of erumpit, that 
donee with the subjunctive is contrary to the practice of Tacitus. 
The true distinction appears to be this : donee with the indicative 
refers to an actual fact, or a thing that is now actually taking place ; 
but donee with the subjunctive indicates something that is to be re- 
alized, but has not yet actually occurred. (Compare Walther, ad 
Ann., ii., 6.) 



CHAPTER II. 

Ipsos Germanos, &c. " The Germans themselves I, for my part, 
believe to be an indigenous race." The pronoun ipsos here marks 
the transition from the subject of the country to that of the people 
dwelling therein. Observe, moreover, that the perfect subjunctive 
is here employed to soften an assertion, investing it with an air of 
modest reserve. (Zumpt, § 527.) — Indigenas. Equivalent to the 
Greek avroxdovag. This belief in the indigenous origin of different 
races was very common among the Greeks and Romans, though 
now deservedly rejected. The ancestors of the German race mi- 
grated by land from Asia, and form one of the links in the Indo- 
European chain of nations. (Compare Geograph. Index, s. v. Ger- 
mania.) 



60 NOTES ON THE GERMANIA. CHAI\ II. 

Minimeque aliarum gentium, &c. " And by no means mixed up 
through immigrations of other communities and the visits of stran- 
gers," i. e., free from all intermixture with foreigners, either as set- 
tlers or casual visitants. Observe here the employment of abstract 
nouns (adventibus, hospitiis) in the plural, to express the recurrence 
of an act, or its taking place on several occasions. This usage is 
very frequent in Tacitus. (Compare Roth, ad Agric, §4, p. Ill, seq. ; 
Voss., Aristarch., iii., 40, and Fortsch., ad loc.) 

Nee . . . . et. Equivalent to et non . . . . et. This is of frequent oc- 
currence. So nequc . . . . et (Anna!., ii., 51 ; xv., 28), and neque .... 
ac (Agric, 10). So in Greek we have ovre .... re, and imtjts .... 
re. (Compare Xuhner, § 775, 3, a.) 

Advehebantur. " Were carried to their places of destination." 
Observe that advehi properly refers to transportation in ships ; here, 
however, it is made to apply also to movements by land. Compare 
Walther, ad Ann., ii., 20. 

Utque sic dixerim, adversus Oceanxis. " And, so to express myself, 
up-hill Ocean." The ancients had a notion that this part of the 
world was higher than the rest ; so that, in sailing to it, they had to 
go as it were up-hill. Compare Hist., ii., 98 ; and Pliny, H. N., ii., 
70: "In alia adverso, in alia prono mari." Tacitus prefixes the 
words utque sic dixerim as a kind of apology for the employment here 
of so unusual an epithet, and this alone would show that the ordi- 
nary meaning of adversus, namely, " hostile," or "opposing," can 
not be intended in the present case. 

Ab orbe nostro. " From our part of the world." The allusion is 
to the countries around the Mediterranean, and forming part of the 
Roman empire. Hence, immediately after, when Asia and Africa 
are mentioned, we must suppose Asia Minor and Northern Africa to 
be meant, the fertility of which regions is praised by many of the 
ancient writers. (Compare Cic. 9 prp Leg. Man., 6 ; Tac, Agric. , 6 ; 
Plin. t H. N., xxxvii., 13 ; Virg., Georg., ii., 136, seqq.) 

Informem terris, &c. "Rugged in surface, rigorous in climate, 
cheerless (alike) to be cultivated and to be beheld," i. e., cheerless 
alike to the cultivator and the mere beholder. No writer uses the 
supine more frequently than Tacitus, both in the accusative and ab- 
lative, for the sake of brevity. (Compare Botlicher, Remarks, &c., 
p. xli. 

Nisi si patria sit. " Unless, if (chance so will it) it be his native 
land," i. e., unless, perchance, it be, &c. Observe, that in the form 
of expression nisi si, which frequently occurs, the conjunction si 
is used elliptically, and the ellipsis must be supplied, in each case, 



NOTES ON THE GERMANIA. CHAP. II. 61 

according to the nature of the context. The phrase is employed to 
denote mere possibility, without any definite assertion. (Compare 
Walther, ad Ann., ii., 63 ; Ha?id, ad TurselL, vol. iv., p. 239.) 

Tuisconem deum. It was customary with almost all ancient com- 
munities, in their national songs, to trace their pedigree to some 
god or deified hero. The name Tuisco is very probably connected 
with that of Teutones, which occurs in various forms ; as Theutisci, 
Theotisci, Tuitschi, and, in the old dialects of Germany, Teut, Tuit, 
Thiuda ; in the Belgic, Duitsche, Duiske. (Compare Grimm, Deutsche 
Gramm. Einleit., p. 13, seq. ; and consult Geograph. Index, s. v. 
Teutones.) 

Mannum. Mannus, the son of Tuisco, is merely a personification 
of the German man (mann), or race, and the three sons of Mannus 
are the three main geographical divisions of this race. 

Ingcevones. The Ingaevones, who are here described as dwelling 
on the Ocean, are "the inhabitants of the inner coasts," i. e., the 
Inbewohner ; and, in like manner, the Istaevones, whom Pliny (H. N., 
iv., 14) speaks of as being "prozimi Rheno," are "the inhabitants of 
the western parts," i. e., the Westbewohner. If this etymology be 
correct, the penults of both names ought to be regarded as long. 
(Compare Mannert, Geogr., vol. hi., p. 145, seqq.) As regards the 
appellation Herminones, it is probable that it contains the root of the 
national name Germani, namely, Herm-, or Gherm- (i. e., Hermin- 
ones, Gher man-ones), if we suppose, as many now do, that this 
name is of Oriental origin. (Compare the remarks of Von Hammer, 
Wien. Jahrb., vol. ii., p. 319 ; and vol. ix., p. 39.) According to this 
explanation, the Herminones will be the main or parent stem occu- 
pying the central parts of the country. A less correct reading is 
Hermiones. 

Licentia vetustatis. "Through the (usual) license of antiquity," 
i. e., availing themselves of the license which so remote a period 
affords for hazarding bold speculations. 

Plures deo ortos. With deo supply illo, the reference being to 
Tuisco. — Marsos, Gambrivios, &c. (Consult Geographical Index.) 
The MSS. vary with regard to the name Gambrivios. The truei 
reading probably is Marsos, Sigambros. (Consult Walther, ad loc] 

Ceterum Germania vocabulum, &c. "That the name of * Ge 
many,' however, is of ancient origin, and lately added," i. e., is 
comparatively modern addition. According to the account herS 
cited by Tacitus, the name Germani is the Latinized form of the ap- 
pellation assumed by the Tungri, the first German tribe that crossed 
the Rhine ; and tb ey gave themselves this name in order to strike 



62 NOTES ON THE GERMANIA. CHAP. II., III. 

terror into their Gallic opponents. Various etymologies have been 
given of the term, but all more or less unsatisfactory. The one 
most commonly received derives the name in question from the 
old German word Werr, " war," and Mann, " a man," so that Ger- 
mani {i. e., Werrmanner) will signify " war-men," or " warriors," the 
Roman alphabet, in consequence of its not having any w, converting 
this letter into a g. Compare, however, the remarks of Graff, Alt- 
hochd. Sprachsch., vol. iv., col. 260, seq. ; and consult Geograph. In- 
dex, where other etymologies, and especially the Oriental one, are 
given. 

Quoniam qui primi Rhenum, &c. " Since they who, having first 
crossed the Rhine, drove out the Gauls, and are now called Tungri, 
were then called Germani," i. e., called themselves Germani. After 
Tungri supply vocentur. Observe, moreover, the employment of 
the subjunctive in this and the succeeding sentence, because the 
writer is giving the assertion of others, not his own sentiments. 
(Zumpt, § 545.) — Ita nationis nomen, &c. " So widely (they affirm) 
did the name of a particular tribe, not of the wiiole race, by degrees 
extend itself, that all called themselves Germani, by an appellation 
assumed in the first instance by the conquering tribe, in order to in- 
spire terror, (and) subsequently adopted by themselves." Observe 
here the zeugma in invento. The Bipont edition, with that of Oberli- 
nus, &c, has ita nationis nomen in nomen gentis, while others for non 
gentis read in gentis, the conjecture of Acidalius. The reading which 
we have adopted, however, is that of all the MSS. and early editions. 



CHAPTER III. 
Fuisse apud eos et Herculem memorant. " They relate that there 
was a Hercules also among them." By Hercules is merely meant 
a mythic personification of valor and manliness. In this sense al- 
most every ancient nation had its Hercules. — Memorant. The ref- 
erence is not to the Germans speaking of themselves, as the words 
apud eos plainly show, but to the account given of them by others. 
— Primum. " As the first," i. e., the most pre-eminent. Equivalent 
to principem. 

Quorum relatu. " By the chanting of which." 'More literally, 
i by the recital of which." Tacitus purposely employs the term re- 
latu here, to indicate that the carmina were actual narratives of il- 
lustrious exploits.— Quern baritum vocant. " Which they call bari- 
tus." This term is supposed to be formed from the old German 



NOTES ON THE GERMANIA. CHAP. III. 63 

baren, "to shout," -itus being a mere Latin ending. (Adelung, 
Gesch. Alt. DeutschL, p. 388.) Another, but erroneous form of the 
word, is barritus, retained in the Glossary of Ducange, ed. Henschel, 
p. 607, but very properly condemned by Freund (Wdrterb., s. v.) 
This last-mentioned writer, moreover, is of opinion that Tacitus 
here erroneously gives the name of the war-cry for that of the war- 
song. Several MSS. and editions read barditum, but there is no au- 
thority to show that bards, as such, existed among the Germans. 
They formed rather a Celtic caste or order. (Compare Veget., iii., 
18; Amm. MarcelL, xvi., 30; xxvi., 7.) 

Terrent enim trepidantve, &c. " For they cause terror, or tremble 
themselves with alarm, according as the line of battle has sounded 
forth (the strain)." Passow places a comma after sonuit, and makes 
acies the nominative plural, and the subject of terrent and trepidant. 
Bat the construction sonuit acies is confirmed by Hist., iv., 18, u ut 
virorum cantu, feminarum ululatu sonuit acies."— -Nee tarn vocis Me, 
quam virtutis, &c. " Nor does that appear so much a chorus of hu- 
man voices as the combined cry of valor itself." The meaning is, 
that a person, on hearing this martial strain, would think he heard, 
not a chorus of human voices, but the valor that animates the bosom 
of each, expressing itself in one combined and prolonged cry. ( Wal- 
ther, ad loc.) 

Fr actum murmur. " A broken roar." The term murmur is not 
unfrequently employed to denote a low, sullen roar, like that of the 
sea, thunder, an earthquake, &c. (Compare Freund, Wdrterb., s. v.) 
— Quo plenior et gravior, &c. "In order that the voice may swell 
forth fuller and more sonorous, in consequence of the repercussion." 

Quidam opinantur, &c. Among these, Strabo (iii., p. 149) con- 
tends that Ulysses advanced beyond Tartessus, and founded 'Odvo- 
oeta (" Olisippo," Lisbon), and Solinus (c. 26, 36) makes him touch 
at Britain. Still more extravagant are the speculations of some 
modern writers, who find a resemblance between the Ulyssean ap- 
pellation Utis and that of Odin ! (Compare Dilthey, ad loc.) — Longo 
Mo etfabuloso err ore. " During those long and much-fabled wander- 
ings of his." Observe that fabuloso is here equivalent to " infabulis 
celebrato." The allusion is to the Homeric and post-Homeric le- 
gends respecting the wanderings of Ulysses on his return from Troy. 

Asciburgium. Mannert, following Ptolemy, makes this place to 
have been situate on the right bank of the Rhine, w T here the canal 
of Drusus joined the Yssel, and where the modern Dosburg lies. It 
seems more correct, however, to make it correspond to Asburg, or 
the neighboring hamlet of Essenberg, on the left bank of the river, 



64 NOTES ON THE GERMANIA. — -CHAP. III., IV. 

as Cluver, Reichard, and Wilhelm (p. 114, 154) have done. The 
name Asciburgium is derived by some from the old German term 
ask, " a vessel," " a ship," and berg or burg, whence it is supposed 
to be equivalent to Schiffburg. (Compare the Anglo-Saxon asc, and 
the old Northern ascho, and consult Riihs, p. 141, and Graf, Althochd. 
Sprachsch., vol. i., col. 492.) Others, however, connect the name 
Asciburgium with the legend of Odin and the Asi. 

Nominatumque. After this word is found in most MSS. and early 
editions a Greek name more or less corrupted, namely, 'AvrvTeayLov., 
or 'karvirvpyiov, or 'AGKinvp-ytov, &c. It is evidently a mere inter- 
polation. Consult Gerlach, ad loc. — Ulixi consecratam. "Conse- 
crated by Ulysses." Observe that Ulixi is here the dative, by a 
Hellenism, for ab Ulixe. (Compare Vechner, Hellenolex., p. 322, ed. 
Heusing.) Some regard Ulixi as the regular dative, and translate 
" consecrated to Ulysses ;" this, however, would be entirely at vari- 
ance with the custom of the northern nations. {Gerlach, ad loc.) — 
Adjecto Laertce patris nomine. The meaning is, that on the pre- 
tended altar, after the name of Ulysses, was inscribed " Son of Laer- 
tes," according to the Grecian custom, and in order that no doubt 
might exist with regard to the erector. 

Gratis litteris inscriptos. This, like the story about the altar, 
must be regarded as a mere fable. We find, however, the Gauls 
acquainted with Grecian characters, which they seem to have 
learned from the Phocseajis who colonized Massilia. (Compare 
Cats., B. G., i., 29 ; v., 48 ; vi., 14.) 

Ex ingenio suo quisque, &c. " Let each one refuse or give credit 
thereto, according to his turn of mind." Literally, "take away or 
add credence." — Ex ingenio. If credulous, let him believe the story ; 
if skeptical, let him withhold his assent. 



CHAPTER IV. 

Infectos. " Changed." The verbs inficere, vitiare, corrumpere, 
like jutalvecv, \io\vvuv, ydeipeiv, &c., do not always imply a change 
for the worse, but often a mere blending, or an alteration of the 
primitive state of any thing. (Passow, ad loc.) — Propriam et since- 
ram, &c. " Have ever existed as a peculiar and unmixed race, and 
like only unto themselves." The adjective similis takes the genitive 
when an internal resemblance, or a resemblance in character and 
disposition, is to be expressed, but the dative when it is merely an 
external one. (Zumpt, § 411.) 

Habitus corporum. " The conformation of their frames," i. e. f 



NOTES ON THE GERMANIA. CHAP. IV., V. 65 

their physical characteristics. — Truces et cozrulei oculi. " Eyes fierce 
of expression and of a light blue color." It is principally in Hesse, 
Westphalia, Pomerania, Hanover, Thuringia, and Bavaria, that we 
find traces at the present day of the physical characteristics which 
Tacitus here ascribes to the ancient German race. On the other 
hand, the communities that inhabit Bohemia, Moravia, Silesia, a part 
of Upper Saxony, and Austria, display in their physical conforma- 
tion the marks of a blending with the Slavonic race. — Rutilce comes. 
"Ruddy locks," i. e., of a yellowish red, or flame-colored. The 
Germans and Gauls frequently used artificial means to make their 
hair of a ruddy or flame color. (Compare Hist., iv., 61, and Strabo, 
vii., p. 290.) 

Magna corpora. The large stature of the ancient Germans is fre- 
quently referred to by the ancient writers. Compare, also, chapter 
xx. of the present treatise. — Et tantum ad impetum valida. " And 
powerful only for the first onset," i. e., the first shock of the conflict. 
(Compare Seneca, de Ira, i., 11: " Germanis quid est animosius ? 
quid adincursum acrius ?") — Laboris atque operum non eadem patientia. 
"There is not the same patient endurance of labor and prolonged 
exertions." Some commentators regard laboris atque operum as a 
hendiadys, but incorrectly, since the form of expression is purposely 
employed here to impart more force to the clause. 

Cozlo solove. The particles ve and vel have always a disjunctive 
force. Here cozlo is to be referred to frigora, and solo to inediam, 
which could not be the case if ve were equivalent to que. Translate, 
11 Cold and hunger they are accustomed to endure by their climate 
and soil." (Compare Passow, ad loc.) 



CHAPTER V. 

Etsi aliquanto specie differt. " Although it varies considerably in 
aspect." Literally, "although it differs (from itself)." Observe 
that differo is here used absolutely. With regard to aliquanto, it may 
be remarked, that aliquanto, aliquantum, and the other compounds 
of ali, which refer to number or space, almost invariably imply great- 
ness of some kind. (Ernesti, ad Suet. Cces., 86.) — In universum ta- 
men, &c. " In general, however, is either rough with forests or de- 
formed by marshes." Tacitus does not appear to have known much 
of the interior of Germany ; although, it is true, numerous forests 
were scattered over it, as the Silva Hercynia, Marciana, Gabreta, 
Luna, Teutobergiensis, &c=, traces of many of which still remain. 
The marshes, of which he here speaks, refer principally to the coun- 



66 NOTES ON THE GERMANIA. CHAP. V. 

try of East Friesland, the coast of the German Ocean at the mouth 
of the Ems and Weser, and to some parts of Westphalia and Lower 
Saxony. These morasses are owing, in many cases, to the forests, 
which hinder the drainage. (Compare the remarks of Wilhelm in 
Kruse's Deutsche Alterthilmer, ii., 6, p. 63.) 

Humidior, qua Gallias. " Moister w T here it faces the Gauls." Sup- 
ply adspicit. The western part of Germany is meant, but more par- 
ticularly the territories of the Batavi and Frisii, now Holland, Fries- 
land, &c. The greater degree of humidity is owing to the forests, 
rivers, lakes, and marshes in this quarter. — Ventosior, qua Noricum 
et Pannoniam, &c. " More bleak where it looks toward Noricum 
and Pannonia." Ancient Noricum and Pannonia comprehended 
what is now Austria, Styria, Carinthia, part of Hungary, &c., so that 
the portion of Germany here meant will be the southern and eastern 
parts. It is more elevated and mountainous than the other parts 
of the country, and hence more exposed to the winds. 

Satis ferax. " Productive for grain," i. e., for things sown in it. 
Observe that satis is here the dative plural of satus, and not the ad- 
verb, as some maintain. Observe, moreover, the difference of mean- 
ing between satorum ferax and satis ferax ; the former (which is the 
more usual construction of ferax) means, " productive in grain," i. e., 
producing it in abundance ; but the latter, " productive for grain," 
i. e., well fitted to produce it. (Walther, ad loc.) Caesar speaks of 
the fertility of the country around the Hercynian Forest (B. G., vi., 
24) ; Commodus laid the Marcomanni under a tribute of corn (Dio 
Cass., xxii., 3) ; the cultivation of oats is mentioned by Pliny (H. 
N.j xviii., 44 ; compare xix., 26, 28, 42) ; and Tacitus himself speaks 
of barley (c. 23). 

Frugiferarum arborum patiens. " Kindly to fruit trees." The 
ordinary text has impatiens, " unkindly," but this can not be correct, 
since the contrary is asserted by Dio Cassius (xlix., 36), Strabo (iv., 
6, 8 ; vii., 5, 11), Pliny (H N., xii., 3), and Tacitus himself (c. 10, 
23, 26.) In the common reading the im might very easily have 
arisen from the m preceding. We have adopted, therefore, patiens, 
the conjecture of some editors. (Compare the remarks of Wilhelm, 
p. 65, note.) — Sed plerumque inprocera. ''But these, for the most 
part, (are) small of size." The epithet inprocera is generally sup- 
posed to be applied here, by a bold figure of speech, to the land itself 
{terra), instead of the flocks (pecora) ; and Wolf (ad Ann., i., 10), 
Passow, Hess, and others, have attempted to confirm this view by 
citing what they .consider to be analogous passages in our author 
Hist. y i., 49, 88 ; iii., 56 ; Ann., xv., 23, &c.). These passages, 



NOTES ON THE GERMANIA. CHAP. V. 67 

however, do not apply to the present case ; and it is better, there- 
fore, to make mprocera a neuter plural, as referring to pecora, with 
an ellipsis of the copula sunt, so that the construction will be sed 
inprocera (ilia sunt). This will save the necessity of our adopting, 
with Bredowand Weikert, the conjectural reading of Lipsius, name- 
ly, pleraque. (Compare Jacobs, and Dilthey, ad loc.) 

Ne armentis quidem suus honor, &c. " Not even the herds have 
their usual stateliness, or dignity of brow," i. e., not even the cattle 
are as large as those in other lands, or supplied with horns of as 
large and imposing a size. Tacitus means that the animals are 
stunted by the severity of the climate. This, however, is an error. 
Some of the quadrupeds of ancient Germany, the Urus (Auerochs), 
for example, were remarkable for their size. The smallness of the 
cattle must have been owing rather to want of care in feeding them, 
in protecting them from the ordinary inclemencies of winter, and 
in improving the breed by mixtures. 

Propitii an irati dii negaverint, &c. Observe the quaintness and 
brevity of the expression. The meaning is this : in Germany the 
precious metals do not occur ; whether, however, the w T ant of these 
be an advantage or an evil, I leave for others to determine. — Nee 
tamen adfirmaverim, &c. It is now well know T n that Germany 
abounds in these veins. The first was discovered in the reign of 
Otho I. 

Possessione et usu haudperinde adficiuntur. " They are not affected 
by the possession and use (of these) in the same way (as other na- 
tions)," i. e., they do not desire the possession and use of them like 
other nations. We must supply in sense ac alice nationes after haud 
perinde. On perinde and proinde (which latter form some editors 
adopt here), consult Zumpt, § 282, but more particularly Hand, ad 
Tursell., vol. iv., p. 451. Some grammarians make haud perinde 
here and elsewhere equivalent to haud magnopere ; incorrectly, how- 
ever, since there is always in these words a latent comparison. 
Boetticher falls into this error in his Lexicon to Tacitus. (Compare 
Ruhnken, Prcef. ad Schell. Lex.,y. 517, ed Friedem. — Roth, ad Tacit., 
Agric, 10. — Duker, ad Liv., xxiii., 21. — Hand, ad Tursell, vol. iv., 
p. 462.) 

Est videre apud illos, &c. " One may see among them silver ves- 
sels held in no higher estimation than those which are formed of 
earth." Literally, " in no other cheapness." Observe here the 
employment of est in the sense of licet (Zumpt, § 227), and compare 
the corresponding Greek usage of Igtl for l^eari. — Quamquam prox- 
imi, ob usum commerciorum, &c. " Although those in our immediate 



68 NOTES ON THE GERMANIA. CHAP. V., VI. 

vicinity do hold gold and silver in estimation for convenience in 
traffic," i. e., set a value on gold and silver for the purposes of trade. 
— Agnoscunt atque eligunt. " Learn to know, and give the prefer- 
ence to." Literally, " recognize (i. e., distinguish) and pick out." 

Veterem et diu notam. The later silver money had been adulter- 
ated. (Plin., H. N., xxxiii., 3, 9.) — Serratos Ugatosque. " Those 
pieces, namely, that are notched at the edge, and those that bear 
the impress of a two-horse chariot." Supply nummos. The pref- 
erence of the Germans to certain forms of Roman money was 
founded on their apprehension of being cheated with false coin. The 
notched pieces would be a preventive against this, since they had 
their edges cut like the teeth of a saw (serra), by which means it 
could be seen whether the metal was the same quite through, or 
was only plated. The pieces termed bigati were, on the other hand, 
old coin of purer silver than the adulterated currency of the day. 
The Germans, probably, had learned to notch the Roman money in 
order to satisfy themselves that it was genuine, and so, in process 
of time, the Romans were induced to mint denarii in that manner 
for their use. Cautious, however, as they were, they found, in the 
lapse of time, that they were deceived by the reliance which they 
had placed on their favorite and rude criterion. The Roman for- 
gers passed ofT upon them denarii of plated copper provided with 
the proper indentations, and serrati of this description are still re- 
maining. (Car dwell, Lectures on the Coinage of the Greeks and Ro- 
mans, p. 160.) 

Sequuntur. " They seek after." (Compare Cic, de Off., i., 37 ; 
Cms., B. C, i., 1, 3.) — Nulla adfectione animi, &c. "From no pre- 
dilection (for that metal), but because the counting of silver pieces 
is more convenient for them, carrying-on, as theyxlo, a promiscuous 
and petty traffic." Observe that numerus is here equivalent to nu- 
meratio, and that after argenteorum we must supply nummorum. 



CHAPTER VI. 

Superest. "Abounds." Literally, "is over and above (their ac- 
tual wants)." Compare Hist., i., 51, 83 ; Agric, 45. Superare is 
used in the same sense. — Sicut ex genere telorum conligitur. " As 
may be inferred from the nature of their weapons." — Frameas. The 
term framea is J ram Latinized, and the modern German word Pfriem, 
" an awl," appears to have some affinity to it. The etymology as- 
signed by Isidorus is absurd : Framea autem dicta, quod ferrea est : 
nam sicut ferramentum, sic Framea dicitur, ac proinde omnis gladius 



NOTES ON THE GERMANIA. CHAP VI. 69 

framed. (Isid., Orig., xviii., 6.) Klemm makes mention of three 
kinds of framece, and gives drawings of each. (Germ. Alterthumsk., 
p. 242.) — Ad usum habili. " Convenient for use," i. e., manageable. 
— Prout ratio poscit. " As occasion requires." Observe that ratio 
is here equivalent to rei conditio, i. e.. " nature of the case," or " oc- 
casion." 

Atque in immensum vibrant, &c. " And hurl them to an immense 
distance, being either naked, or lightly covered with a small cloak." 
There should be no full stop after vibrant ; they used this light dress 
that they might have greater freedom of movement. — Nulla cultus 
jactatio. " They have no pride in personal appearance," i. e., either 
as regards attire or arms. Tacitus here, and in similar instances, 
uses the abstract noun. The writers of the Augustan age would 
employ the verb. — Lectissimis coloribus. "With the choicest col- 
ors." This decoration at first denoted the valor, afterward the no- 
bility of the bearer, and in process of time gave origin to the ar- 
morial ensigns so famous in the ages of chivalry. The shields of 
the private men were simply colored ; those of the chieftains had 
also the figures of animals painted upon them. (Aikin, ad loc. Com- 
pare Eichhorn, Staats-, und Rechtsgesch., i., p. 341.) — Vix uni alterive 
cassis aut galea. " Hardly one or two, a casque or a helmet." By 
cassis, strictly speaking, is meant a head-piece which has a metallic 
basis ; by galea, on the other hand, one that is made of skin or 
leather. This distinction, however, is not always observed, though 
it is intended to be so in the present instance. (Compare Isidor., 
Orig., xviii., 14.) 

Forma. " For beauty." Equivalent here to formositate. The 
inferiority of the German horses in appearance and speed, especially 
the latter, arose probably from their being reared, not in open 
plains, of which there were but few, but in places more or less 
covered with forests. — Sed nee variare gyros, &c. "Nor are they 
even taught to practice the various changes of the ring, after our 
fashion." Literally, "to vary circular movements." The refer- 
ence is to the various evolutions and changes of the ring as prac- 
ticed by the Romans in the training of their steeds. The object 
was, by dint of frequent wheelings, to render the horse perfectly 
obedient to the rein. (Compare Virg., Georg., iii., 191, where the 
Roman mode of training is alluded to.) — Nee. Observe that this 
particle is equivalent here to ne auidem, and compare the remarks 
of Hand, ad Tursell, iv., p. 105. 

In rectum, aut uno flezu dextros agunt, &c. " They urge them 
straight onward, or else by one continued turning toward the right, 



70 NOTES ON THE GERMANIA.— CHAP. VI. 

in so close a circle that no one is behind the rest." Observe that 
dextros is here equivalent to dextrorsus. The meaning of this pass- 
age has been often misunderstood, from its being supposed to re- 
fer to military tactics and the evolutions of the battle-field. That 
cavalry, however, should always wheel to the right is, as has justly 
been remarked, utterly inconceivable, since in some positions this 
would make them present their rear, instead of their front, to the 
enemy. The truth is, Tacitus is merely alluding to the German 
mode of training steeds, as contrasted with that of the Romans. 
The latter, as he has just informed us, practiced various changes of 
the ring, or, in other words, made the steed perform a variety of 
complicated movements, in order to render him, by dint of numer- 
ous turnings both to the right and left, more obedient to the rein ; 
the Germans, on the other hand, had only two modes of proceeding, 
namely, either to ride straight onward, or else to move round in one 
continued ring, by a constant turning of the horse toward the right. 
And this movement was practiced by a number of riders at one and 
the same time, and who followed one another so closely that the 
ring or circle which they formed may be said to have had neither 
beginning nor end, and hence no one was behind the rest. (Com- 
pare Gerlach, ad loc.) 

Plus penes peditem roboris. The German cavalry, however, were 
generally superior to the Roman in their encounters. (Compare 
Cas., B. G., iv., 12, where eight hundred German horse are said 
to have put to flight a body of Roman cavalry to the number of five 
thousand. ) — Eoque mixti prozliantur. A very graphic description of 
this mode of fighting is given by Caesar. (B. G., i., 48.) It was 
adopted by Caesar himself at the battle of Pharsalia. (B. C, iii., 
75.) — Apia et congruente ad equestrem pugnam, &c. " The agility of 
their infantry being well adapted for, and fitly uniting with an eques- 
trian conflict." We must be careful not to regard apta and congru- 
ente here as mere synonymous terms. The latter, in fact, strength- 
ens and amplifies the signification of the former. 

Centeni ex singulis pagis sunt. " There are a hundred from each 
canton." Compare chapter xii., where other centeni are mentioned, 
having reference to civil affairs. The division by hundreds ap- 
pears, in fact, to have been a very widely spread one, and to per- 
vade the whole of Teutonic and Scandinavian antiquity. (Grote, 
Hist, of Greece, iii., p. 74, note.) — Id ipsum. "By this very name," 
i. e., the Hundreders, or a Hundreder, of such a canton. Literally, 
" they are called this very thing." — Nomen et honor. " An appella- 
tion, and a source of distinction." Grammatically speaking, a hen 



NOTES ON THE GERMANIA. CHAP. VI., VII. 71 

diadys ; but, in reality, far more expressive than the usual form of 
speech would have been. 

Cuneos. The term cuneus was applied to a body of foot soldiers 
drawn up in the form of a wedge, for the purpose of breaking through 
an enemy's line. The common soldiers among the Romans called 
it a caput porcinum, or " pig's head." Hence, Agathias (de Imp. 
Just., ii., p. 40), in speaking of the wedge-order as adopted by the 
Franks against Narses, remarks, §air\q re av avrovg ovbc netyakriv ry 
cvvdivet aTTOTVTccHjaodai. 

Consilii quam formidinis arbitrantur. " They consider a mark 
rather of prudence than of fear," i. e., a prudent stratagem rather 
than an act of cowardice. The ellipsis of magis here, like that of 
\iaXkov in Greek, is so common in its occurrence as to need no ex- 
amples. — Scutum reliquisse pracipuum flagitium. " To have aban- 
doned one's shield is a prime disgrace." Compare Horace, Od., ii., 
7, 10 ; and the well-known injunctions of the Spartan women, when 
presenting their sons with their shields, *H rav rj enl rag, and Tavrnv 
6 narrjp cot aei eGu^e, ml ov ovv ravrijv atifr, rj (irj eao. 

Ignominioso. l ' For one thus branded with ignominy. ' ' Compare, 
as regards the punishment of the ignavi and imbelles, what is men- 
tioned in chapter xii. — Multique superstites bellorum, &c. "And 
many (such) survivors of wars have put an end to their infamy by 
the halter." 



CHAPTER VII. 

Ex nobilitate. " On account of nobility of birth," t. e., splendor 
of descent. Observe here the force of ex, which is nearly similar 
to that of propter or secundum. Compare " Distinctio poenarum ex 
delicto" (c. 12) ; ex modo virium (c. 34), and consult Bbtticher, Lex. 
Tacit., p. 166. — Nee regibus infinita aut libera potestas. For an ac- 
count of the prerogatives and powers of the early German kings, 
consult Klemm, Germ. Alter ihumsk., p. 204, seqq. Some of the north- 
eastern tribes appear, however, to have been ruled over more des- 
potically. Compare, also, what is said by our author of the Suiones 
and Sitones, in chapters xliv. and xlv. As regards the distinction 
between the offices of rex and dux, it may be remarked, that at the 
period of the great migration of the northern nations these two ap- 
pear to have been united into one. (Klemm, L c.) 

Et duces exemplo, &c. " And their leaders (are so) through the 
force of example, rather than from any exercise of authority," i. e., 
they command less through the force of authority than of example. 



72 NOTES ON THE GERMANIA. CHAP. VII. 

— Admiratione prasunt. " They take the lead by reason of the ad- 
miration which they inspire." — Animadvertere. " To put to death." 
This verb commonly means " to punish" simply ; here, however, 
it is to be taken in a stronger sense, as in Hist., i., 46, and iv., 49, 
and we may supply gladio or something similar. Tacitus, it will 
be perceived, is descending from heavier to lighter punishments. — 
Vincire. Bonds would be something yet more offensive to freemen 
than stripes. — Nisi sacerdotibus permission. The statement of Tac- 
itus is at variance with that of Caesar, who remarks (B. G., vi., 23), 
" Quum helium civitas aut illatum defendit, autinfert, magistratus, qui 
ei hello prcesint, ut vita necisque habeant potestatem deliguntur." Lip- 
sius seeks to reconcile these two authorities by supposing that 
Tacitus refers to a state of peace, but Caesar to one of war. He is 
plainly contradicted, however, by what follow r s. 

Non quasi in poznam, &c. What was thus inflicted by the priests 
was not regarded in the light of a mere judicial sentence, nor as 
emanating from the dux, or military leader, but as something coming 
from on high.— Sed velut deo imperante, &c. The god Thor, the 
German Mars, is meant. (Compare chapter ix.) 

Effigiesque et signa qucedam, &c. " (On this account), moreover, 
they carry to battle effigies (of animals), and certain standards taken 
down from their (sacred) groves," i. e., in consequence of this belief 
that the god is present in the battle-field, they bear to battle the 
effigies of animals answering the purposes of standards, w r hich, from 
the circumstance of their having been preserved in sacred groves, 
will, it is conceived, propitiate the favor of the divinity, and induce 
him to be on their side. With effigies, supply ferarum, an ellipsis 
supplied elsewhere by Tacitus himself, Hist., iv., 22 : " Depromtcs 
silvis lucisque ferarum imagines. " The expression effigies et signa 
qucedam, moreover, means nothing more than " effigies forming or 
answering the purpose of a kind of standards," the conjunction et 
being here merely explanatory, and the standards referred to being 
like those represented on the columns of Trajan and Antoninus, 
namely, the figure of an animal at the top of a pole. (Dilthey, ad 
loc. — Gerlach, ad loc. — Klemm, Germ. Alter thumsk., p. 231.) 

Turmam aut cuneum. " The troop of horse, or the wedge of foot." 
Among the Romans a turma contained thirty men ; here, however, 
the word is used in a general sense. — Familice, et propinquitates. 
" Families and kindreds." Eichhorn appears to be in error when 
he thinks that these bore more analogy to the Roman gentes than 
to relationship of blood or wedlock. (Staats und Rechts Gesch , i., 
p. 84.) — Et in proximo pignora. " And close by are the (dearest) 



NOTES ON THE GERMANIA. CHAP. VII., VIII. 73 

pledges (of affection)." The allusion is to their mothers, wives, and 
children, who were accustomed to go out with them to war, and 
remained by and acted as a sort of guard for the wagons. (Compare 
chap, viii., and Hist., iv., 18.) With proximo supply loco. — Sanctis- 
simi testes. " The most revered witnesses (of his bearing in the 
fight)." 

Exigere. " To compare and examine minutely." The force of 
this term here is well explained by Gronovius : " taxare et dignoscere ; 
expendere et comparare inter se xulnera, cum laude ejus, qui majora 
et honestiora tulerit." Rhenanus conjectured exsugere, "to suck," 
which the Bipont edition adopts ; but the present reading is far more 
spirited. — Cibosque et hortamina. " Both food and encouragement." 
Two different things connected with one verb gestare. Compare 
chap. i. : " Mutuo metu aut montibus separatur." 



CHAPTER VIII. 

Quasdam acies, inclinatas jam, &c. "That some armies, already 
giving way and ready to flee, have been rallied by the women." 
Literally, " have been restored." — Objectu pectorum. " By present- 
ing unto them their breasts," i. e., by presenting their breasts unto 
their husbands and brothers, and begging death at their hands rather 
than captivity. (Compare Dilthey, ad loc.) Tacitus very often em- 
ploys verbal nouns of the fourth declension, and in the ablative case, 
in the place of participles. 

Nomine. "On account of." (Compare Hist., i., 29 : " Non quia 
meo nomine paveam," and consult Botticher, Lex. Tac, s. v.) — Effica- 
cius obligcntur." "Are more effectually bound (to obedience)." — 
PucIIcb quoque nobiles imperantur. Heinsius and Huet, without any 
necessity, conjecture nubiles. As regards the fact itself here re- 
ferred to, we may compare Suetonius {Aug., 21): "A quibusdam 
novum genus obsidum, feminas, exigere tentavit," &c. — Inesse quin 
etiam sanctum aliquid, &c. " Nay, they even think that there is 
something sacred and prescient in (the female sex)." Compare 
Ccrs., B. G., i., 50 ; Plut., de Virt. Mul, if, p. 246 ; Ann., xiv., 29. 

Vidimus. It would be a great error, as Dilthey remarks, to infer 
from this expression that Tacitus had himself been in Germany. — 
Veledam. Statius (Silv., i., 4, 89) gives the penult of this word 
short, " Captivceque preces Velcdcz" &c. While Dio Cassius, on the 
other hand (lxvii., 5), writes it in Greek with the long quantity, 
namely, BeTirjdav. The former appears more correct. Veleda was 
a female of the Bructeri, and had much to do with the project of 

I) 



74 NOTES ON THE GERMANIA. CHAP. VIII., IX. 

Civilis to drive the Romans from Gaul. Her influence was very 
great among all classes of the Germans, and she contributed by her 
predictions to some of their most brilliant successes. She was sur- 
rendered to the Romans, however, by her own countrymen, perhaps 
by Civilis himself, and Statius (I c.) alludes to her captivity. She 
is said to have dwelt in a tower, according to some in a cave, at a 
place now called Spillenberg, on the right bank of the Luppia or 
Lippe. Various explanations have been given of the name, some 
of which may be seen in Ryckius, ad Tac., Hist., iv., 61, p. 444. 
Dilthey makes it signify " a female inhabitant of the forest" (Wald- 
lewohnerin) ; and Grater (Idunna, 1816, N. 6) derives it from Wale 
Hulda, i. e., the Witch Hulda, of whom there are traditions even at 
the present day in the popular superstitions of Thuringia. 

Auriniam. Tacitus, in all probability, has given us here, by mis- 
take, a common instead of a proper name. The northern nations 
gave the name Alrunen to women of this kind, which some derive 
from all, and runa, " a mystery" or " secret," on account of their 
being supposed to be omniscient. (Dilthey, ad loc.) Hence, in all 
likelihood, the conjecture of Lipsius, namely, Aluriniam, of which 
Seebode approves, presents us with the true reading here. Jornan- 
des, moreover (Goth., c. 24), speaks of the German women called 
Aliorun(E, a term equivalent, as he informs us, to " maga mulieres." 

Complures alias. Among these may be named Ganna, who suc- 
ceeded Veleda, and was held in equally high veneration. She ac- 
companied Masyus, king of the Semnones, to Rome in the time of 
Domitian, and was very honorably received. (Dio Cass , lxvii., 5.) 
Non adulatione, nee tamquam, &c. "Not, (however), with a spirit 
of servile adulation, nor as if they would make them divinities," L 
e., not, however, with that spirit of adulation which would raise 
mortals to deities. A sarcastic allusion to the usages of his own 
countrymen in the case of their emperors, &c. 



CHAPTER IX. 

Deorum maxime Mercurium colunt. Scarcely any thing is known 
about the religion of the ancient Germans. The few notices we 
have respecting it are chiefly in the writings of the Greeks and Ro- 
mans, who did not understand their language, and, with very few 
exceptions, had never visited the country ; or in those of the Christ- 
ian fathers and ecclesiastics, who were more eager to condemn 
the superstitions of the pagans than to make minute researches into 
their character and origin. The deity whom Tacitus calls Mercu- 



NOTES ON THE GERMANIA. CHAP. TX. 75 

Hus seems to have been the Wodan or Odin of the Germans. The 
Gauls and Thracians also honored Mercury above all the other gods. 
(Cces., B. G., vi.. 17 ; Herod., v., 7.) Mereurii dies is Wodenstag, 
or Wednesday. 

Cui certis diebus, &c. " Whom on certain days they consider it 
lawful to propitiate with human victims also." These victims were 
usually prisoners taken in war, and the mode in which they were 
sacrificed may be learned from Strabo (vii., p. 295). Germanicus 
saw in the Saltus Teutobergiensis the altars on which, after the 
overthrow of Varus, the tribunes and principal centurions were im- 
molated. (Ann., i., 61.) We find mention of human sacrifices 
among the Semnones (Germ., c. 39) ; the Cimbri (Oros., v. 15) ; the 
Saxones (Sidon. ApolL, Ep., viii., 6) ; the Heruli (Procop., ii., 14) ; 
the Franks (Id., ii., 25), &c. It would be unjust, however, to our 
German forefathers to suppose that such horrid rites were confined 
to them. They appear to have prevailed among almost all the na- 
tions of antiquity, including even the Greeks and Romans them- 
selves. (Plin., H N., xxx., 3.) 

Herculem. (Consult chap, iii.) — Mar tern. Mars appears to be 
identical with Thor or Thoron. At a subsequent period, however, 
the German Thor appears to have been confounded with the Jupiter 
of the Romans, being regarded as the god of the thunder (Donnergott), 
and hence Thursday (Thorstag) received the appellation of Bonner s- 
tag, which it still retains. 

Pars Suevorum et Isidi sacri/icaJ. All kinds of conjectures have 
been formed respecting this Isis, and her connection with the Suevi. 
The most probable appears to be, that by Isis was meant the moon, 
which was worshiped by the Germans. (Cces., B. G., vi., 21.) The 
symbol of Isis would resemble either a pinnace, or the crescent 
moon. (Compare Dilthey, ad loc.) — Signum ipsum. " The symbol 
itself (of the goddess)." — In modum libur nee figuration. " Fashioned 
after the manner of a Liburnian galley." Supply navis after Liburnce, 
The Liburnian galleys were commonly biremes, made very sharp 
in the bows, and built expressly for speed. (Diet. Ant., s. v. Li- 
burna.) 

Nee cohibere parietibus, &c. " They do not consider it in accord- 
ance with the greatness of celestial beings either to restrain," &c. 
The same is said of the Persians, from whom the Germans are by 
some supposed to be sprung. (Compare Herod., i., 131 ; Cic., Dt 
Leg., i., 2.) — Lucos et nemora. "Groves and woodlands." The 
term nemus is more extensive in signification than lucus, and has 
the same relation to it that the whole has to a part. Compare Cato 



76 NOTES ON THE GERMANIA. CHAP. IX., X. 

{ap. Prise. , xiv., p. 629), " Lucum Dianium in nemore Aricino," &c., 
and consult Doderlein, Lat. Syn., ii., p. 90 ; and, on the subject of 
the consecration of groves by the ancient nations, compare the re- 
marks of Du Cange, Gloss., s. v. Arbores Sacrivi, p. 361, ed Hensch. 
Deorumque nominibus, &c. "And they call by the names of (dif- 
ferent) deities that secret power, which they see with the eye of 
reverential faith alone." The allusion is to the secret and myste- 
rious idea of deity, which they form unto themselves, and which 
they style by different names, such as Tuisco, Wodan, Thor, &c., 
but which they do not presume to embody into any external form. 
Some commentators less correctly refer secretum Mud to the mys- 
terious horror and gloomy silence of the sacred groves. 



CHAPTER X. 

Auspicia, sortesque, &c. " They observe auspices and lots as much 
as any people whatsoever," i. e., no people are more addicted to di- 
vining by means of omens and lots. Observe the expression ut qui 
maxime, the same, in fact, as ut Mi faciunt qui maxime observant, and 
compare the Greek kv role fzdXiara. — In surculos amputant. "They 
cut into small pieces." — Notis quibusdam diseretos. " Distinguished 
by certain marks." — Temere ac fortuito. "Without order and at 
random." Observe that this is not a pleonastic form of expression, 
but that fortuito enlarges on the idea implied in temere. A method 
of divination similar to the one here described by Tacitus was prac- 
ticed by the Scythians. {Herod., iv., 67.) 

Si publice consulatur. " If there be a consulting of the lots in a 
matter of public import." We have given consulatur here with 
Bekker, Liinemann, Grotefend, and Gunther. The more common 
reading in the latest editions is consuletur, which Walther and oth- 
ers advocate, but on very unsatisfactory grounds. — Ter singulos tol~ 
lit. " Three times takes up a lot," i. e., takes up three lots one after 
another. We must be careful not to render this, " takes up each 
three times." (Compare Orelli, Symb., p. 13.) 

Si prohibuerunt. Supply sortes, and observe the employment of 
the active prohibuerunt in conjunction with the passive permissum, 
a change of voices not unusual in Tacitus. — Auspiciorum fides adhuc 
exigitur. " The sanction of auspices is required in addition," i. e. } 
a confirmation by omens is in addition required. 

Et Mud quidem etiam hie notum. " That other custom, indeed, is 
also known even here." The pronoun Mud refers to the custom 
prevalent in other lands, namely, among the Greeks and Romans, 



NOTES ON THE GERM A NI A. CHAP. X. 77 

and is in apposition with avium voces volatusque interrogate. Doder- 

lein (ad Agric, p. 64) regards et etiam here as pleonastic, 

incorrectly, however. 

Proprium gentis. He here speaks principally with reference to 
the Romans. The same custom is recorded of the Persians, the 
kinsmen of the German race. {Herod., i., 189 ; vii., 55.) Compare 
Dilthey, ad loc. — Candidi. This will remind us of the white horses 
among the Persians, that were sacred to the sun. — Contacti. " Pro- 
faned." Literally, "touched," i. e., polluted or sullied. — Hinnitus- 
que ac fremitus observant. " And mark their neighings and snort- 
ings." Dilthey compares with this the story of the manner in which 
Darius Hystaspis is said to have obtained the kingdom {Herod., iii., 
85), connected as that story is with the adoration paid by the Per- 
sians to the sun. {Justin, i., 10.) 

Ulli auspicio. " To any kind of augury." — Sed apud proceres. 
"But among the nobles also." Observe that sed is here for sed et, 
or sed etiam. Compare chap, xv., " Sed publice." — Sacerdotes. The 
Germans had no distinct order of priests like the Druids {Cas., 
B. G., vi., 21), though, from this chapter, it seems that in each 
state there were men invested with both a sacred and a magisterial 
character, who were frequently of noble or even kingly descent, as 
in the case of Segimundus at Ara Ubiorum {Ann., i., 57), and Libys, 
the priest of the Catti, mentioned by Strabo (vii., p. 448). In cases 
of minor importance, the head of the family performed the necessary 
rites. (Compare Luden, Gesch. der Deutschen, i., p. 181, seq.) 

Se enim ministros deorum, &c. " For they consider themselves 
(during the ceremony) as the ministers of the gods, the horses as 
privy (to their will)," i. e., as divinely inspired. After conscios sup- 
ply voluntatis eorum, or something equivalent. 

Alia observatio auspiciorum. "Another mode of taking the aus- 
pices," i. e., another mode of divination. — Explorant. " They strive 
to ascertain." — Cum electo. " With a chosen champion." — Commit- 
tunt. The verbs committer e, comparare, and componere are properly 
applied to matching two combatants together. So " incompositus," 
"not well matched." {De Or. D., 26.) — Pro prcejudicio. "As a 
presage." If the captive conquers, it is a bad omen for them ; if, 
on the contrary, their own countryman proves victorious, it is a 
favorable presage. Prcejudicium is, properly, " a judgment or sen- 
tence which affords a precedent to be afterward followed," and 
therefore, in the present instance, literally, " a means of judging be- 
forehand." 



78 NOTES ON THE GERMANIA. — -CHAP. XI. 



CHAPTER XL 

Principes. " The chiefs." — Quorum penes plebem arbitrium est. 
" The decision of which rests with the people." — Pertractentur 
This is the reading of all the early editions, and of almost all the 
MSS. Muretus and others, however, preferred prcetractentur ; but, 
in the first place, the words ea quoque militate against this conjec- 
ture, and, besides, pratractare is found nowhere else, and is, in fact, 
not Latin, the ancient writers using ante tradare. 

Fortuitum et subitum. " Accidental and sudden." — Certis diebus. 
" On stated days." — Cum aut inchoatur luna, &c. The moon was 
one of the principal deities of the Germans (Cces., B. G., vi., 21), 
and its changes would, therefore, naturally control their most im- 
portant deliberations. (Compare Cces., B. G., i., 50, and Plin., H. 
W:, xvi., 44.) — Nee dierum numerum, &c. A trace of this mode of 
reckoning appears in the words se'nnight and fortnight. Compare, 
also, the language of the Sacred Writings : " And the evening and 
the morning were the first day" (Gen., i., 5); and, again, "In the 
ninth day of the month at even, from even unto even, shall ye cel- 
ebrate your Sabbath." (Levit., xxiii., 32.) 

Sic constituunt, sic condicunt. " In this way they decree, in this 
way they summon," i. e., when they appoint a time in which any 
thing is to be done, or summon any individual to justice, they com- 
pute the period by so many nights, not by so many days. Brotier 
cites illustrations of this practice from the Salic law, Tit. 48 : " Inter 
decern nodes ;" Tit. 50 : " In nodes quadraginta," &c. 

Illud ex liber tate vitium. " The following evil habit arises from 
the freedom which they enjoy." — Quod non simul, nee ut jussi, &e. 
With regard to the Treviri, on the other hand, Caesar (B. G.,v., 56) 
says, " Qui ex iis novissumus venit, in conspectu multitudinis omnibus 
cruciatibus affectus necatur." 

Ut turbcB placuit. " As soon as it has pleased the assembled 
throng." Observe that ut with the perfect indicative has the force 
of simul ac. Gronovius conjectures ut turba placuit, " as soon as 
the number has appeared sufficient," i. e., for the transaction of 
business. But the MSS. are all against this, neither is the change 
at all required. 

Quibus turn et coercendi jus est. Compare chap. vii. — Decus 
bellorum. " Warlike renown." — Audoritate suadendi magis, &c. 
"More by reason of ability to advise than from any power to com- 
mand," i. e., weight of character and general ability to give good 



NOTES ON THE GERMANIA. CHAP. XI., XII. 79 

advice insures them attention, rather than any authority to compel 
it arising from rank or station. — Frameas concutiunt. "They clash 
their frameae." — Armis laudare. Compare Hist., v., 17 : " Sono ar- 
morum tripudiisque (ita Mis mos) approbata sunt dicta" 



CHAPTER XII. 

Apud consilium. . These assemblies were convened chiefly to dis- 
cuss matters relating to war,»and the offences tried before them 
were principally such as affected the military interests of the nation. 
Other crimes were placed under the cognizance of the principes, 
who were elected to administer justice among the different cantons 
and villages. — Discrimen capitis intendere. " To prefer a capital 
charge," i. e., to prosecute capital offences. Literally, " to aim (or 
direct) at one a risk of life, i. e., a charge involving a risk of life. 
There is no allusion whatever here to the Roman capitis deminutio, 
in its judicial sense. For an account of this last, consult Diet. Ant. t 
s. v. Caput. 

Ex delicto. " According to the degree of delinquency." — Arbor- 
ibus suspendunt. They were, in fact, gibbeted alive. Heavy pen- 
alties were denounced against those who should take them down 
alive or dead. These are particularized in the Salic law, and cited 
by Brotier. — Corpore infames. Lipsius conjectures torpor e inf antes, 
and strives to defend this reading in a patriotic excursus, which is 
given in Oberlin's edition at p. 830. Consult, however, Dilthey's 
note, where the whole subject is discussed. — Cozno ac palude. 
" Amid mire, and in a fen," i. e., amid the mire of a fen. A body was 
found in 1817, at a considerable depth, in a moor in East Friesland, 
which is supposed to have undergone this punishment. (Klemm, 
Germ. Alterth., p. 56. — Weishaupt, ad loc.) — Crate. "A hurdle." 
Heavy stones were, in all probability, placed on the top of this. 
For instances of a similar mode of punishment among the Romans, 
compare Plaut., Pcen., ii., 65; Liv., i., 51; Columella, i., 6, 22; 
Sueton., Calig.y 16. 

Illuc rcspicit. " Has the following principle in view." — Scelera 

flagitia. By the former are meant, " open crimes ;" by the 

latter, " acts of infamy." — Sed et levioribus delictis, &c. " (Nor 
this alone) ; but there is also, for slighter offenses, a punishment 
proportioned to the degree of delinquency." Delictis is generally 
regarded here as the ablative, with an ellipsis of in ; but the dative 
is far neater. — Pozna. We have followed here the conjecture of 
Acidalius, with Ernesti, Brotier, Oberlin, Bekker, and others. The 



80 NOTES ON THE GERMANIA. CHAP. XII., XIII. 

common text has pro modo pcenarum, eguorum pecorumque, &c. — 
Equorum pecorumque. Their property, in fact, consisted of these. 
Compare chap. v. : " Eceque solas, et gratis simce opes sunt" 

Eliguntur reddant. (Compare Cces., B. G., vi., 23.) — Per 

pagos vicosque. (Compare Cces., B. G., iv., 1.) In like manner, the 
state of the Catti was divided into cantons and villages. {Ann., L, 
56.) Helvetia was divided into four cantons. {Cces., B. G., i., 12.) 
A similar division was adopted by the Saxons in England. — Consil- 
ium simul et auctoritas. "As a council of advice, and, at the same 
time, a means of enforcing their authority." 



CHAPTER XIII. 

Nihil autem neque publics, &c. "They transact, moreover, no 
business, either public or private, without being armed." (Compare 
Cces., B. G., v., 56 ; Thucyd., i., 6.) — Non moris. " It is no part of 
their customs," i. e., it is not customary. The partitive genitive. — 
Suffecturum probaverit. " Shall have ascertained by actual trial that 
he will be equal to the task." Observe the force of probaverit, im- 
plying that some kind of proof of his capabilities was to be given by 
the young man. — Ornant. The singular ornat would have accorded 
better with the conjunction vel. 

Haze apud illos toga. " This, with them, is the manly gown," i. e., 
this, with them, takes the place of the manly gown, or toga virilis, 
among the Romans. (Consult Diet. Ant., s. v. Impubes and Clavus 
Latus.)—Mox reipublicce. With this ceremony (as with marriage 
in the case of daughters) the power of the father over the child 
ended, and the young man now took part in public assemblies, &c. 

Insignis nobilitas, &c. The meaning of this sentence seems to 
be, that a man's nobility or achievements gave his sons a right to be 
accounted of princely rank, even before they were old enough to 
have distinguished themselves in the field ; and, accordingly, they 
associated as comites with young men, who had reached a more ro- 
bust age, and had already distinguished themselves. — Ceteris robus- 
tioribus, &c. "They are associated, (however), unto the other 
youths that are more robust of frame, and have long since been ap- 
proved, nor do they blush to be seen among the companions of 
these." With rubor, supply est Mis. The more common phrase- 
ology, however, is rubori est, which is used elsewhere by Tacitus 
himself. {Ann., xi., 17 ; xiv., 55.) Ernesti and Brotier, following 
Lipsius, Freinshem, and others, read ceteri in place of ceteris, from 
a complete misapprehension of the meaning of the passage. 



NOTES ON THE GERMANIA. CHAP. XIII., XIV. 81 

Gradus quin etiam et ipse comitatus habet. " Moreover, even com- 
panionship itself has its several degrees." The words et ipse are 
expunged by Walch, and perhaps correctly. They are certainly not 
needed. In all probability, et arose, by some corruption, from etiam, 
which precedes, and perhaps ipse was then inserted to give more 
emphasis to comitates. (Consult Gerlach, ad loc.) 

Hcec dignitas, hce vires. " In this consists their dignity, in this 
their strength." — Id nomen, ea gloria est. "Does this confer a dis- 
tinguished name, is this a source of renown." Literally, " Is this a 
name, is this a glory." — Et ipsa plerumque fama bella profligant. 
*} And they oftentimes nearly bring wars to a close by their reputa- 
tion alone." Profligare is, "to cause to totter," literally. Hence 
it is frequently followed by conficere. From this has been derived 
the meaning of " nearly to finish." "What is mentioned in the text 
is related by Caesar of Indutiomarus (B. G., v., 55) ; by Tacitus of 
Segestes (Ann., i., 57) ; of Flavius, the brother of Arminius (Ann., 
ii., 9) ; and of Inguiomerus (Ann., ii., 45). 



CHAPTER XIV. 

Jam vero infame, &c. " Above all, however, is it a source of in- 
famy and reproach during the whole of one's life." The expression 
jam vero, like turn vero, is always employed to introduce the climax, 
and requires, therefore, occasionally a somewhat free mode of ren- 
dering. Compare the version of Botticher, " Das aber vollends ist 
furs ganze Leben erne Schande und eine Schmach." — Probrosum. Ob- 
serve that infame here refers to the actual infamy, considered per 
se, and probrosum to the reproaching of one with that stain upon his 
character. 

Super stitem principi, &c. Hence, when Chonodomar, king of the 
Alemanni, was taken prisoner by the Romans, his companions, two 
hundred in number, and three of his most intimate friends (amici 
junctissimi), deeming it infamous to survive their prince, or else not 
to die for him, if chance should so Will it, delivered themselves up to 
be thrown into fetters. (Amm. Marcell., xvi., 12, 60.) — Prcecipuum 
sacramentum. " Is their chief and most sacred obligation." Sac- 
ramentumhere denotes a sacred duty, &c, and one generally guarded 
by an oath. Hence the term was especially applied to the military 
oath of the Roman soldiery ; and Tacitus, therefore, expressly em- 
ploys the word in the present case to show how binding among the 
Germans was the obligation to which he refers. 

Tueare. So quiescas (chap, xxxvi.), and acciperes, coerceas, asse- 
D2 



82 NOTES ON THE GERMANIA.— CHAP. XIV. 

quare {Ann., ii., 30 ; iii., 54; vi., 8.) — Exigunt enim, &c. Montes- 
quieu derives from this the origin of vassalage. At first the prince 
gave to his nobles arms and provisions. As cupidity increased, 
money, and then lands, were required, which last, from benefices 
{beneficia), became at length hereditary possessions, and were called 
fiefs. Hence the establishment of the feudal system. {Esprit des 
Lois, xxx., 3.) 

Blum bellatorem equum. " That war-steed." The pronoun is here 
meant to express gesture, or a pointing at the object sought to be 
obtained. So, likewise, Mam in the succeeding clause. Observe, 
moreover, the expression bellatorem equum, and compare Virgil, 
Georg., ii., 145: " Hinc bellator equus campo sese arduus infert." 
Consult, also, Botticher's remarks on the poetical complexion of the 
style of Tacitus. — Nam epulce et convictus, &e. " For banquets and 
common tables, although homely, yet marked by abundant supply, 
take the place of pay." We have followed here the reading of the 
earlier editions, by which largi apparatus becomes the genitive of 
quality {Zumpt, § 426). This is also given by the Bipont editor, 
and by Passow, Hess, Dilthey, and others. The other reading is 
as follows : " Nam epulce et, quamquam incomti largi tamen appara- 
tus," &c. " For banquets and entertainments, although homely, 
yet plentiful, take the place of pay." In this latter, apparatus be- 
comes the nominative plural. The former reading, however, is un- 
doubtedly the true one. The pay of the companions did not consist 
in mere occasional banquets, but in their sharing a daily table with 
the leader, or, as the term convictus literally means, " a living with" 
him. This common table, always plentifully supplied, was occa- 
sionally rendered still more so by a banquet on a large scale. 

Per bella et raptus. " By means of wars and plundering excur- 
sions." (Compare Caesar, B. G., vi., 23 : " Lalrocinia nullam ha- 
bent infamiam, qua extra fines cujusque civitatis fiunt") — Exspectare 
annum. " To await the produce of the year." Another poetic form 
of expression. Annus is often used by the poets for proventus anni, 
or messis ; as, for instance, by Lucan, iii., 452. (Compare Markland, 
ad Stat., Sylv., iii., 2, 22.) Agriculture was not entirely neglected 
by the Germans ; it was only not prosecuted with any great degree 
of zeal. (Compare Caes., B. G., vi., 22 : " Agriculture non student.") 
The cultivation of the fields was left, as Tacitus himself informs us, 
to the women, old men, and weakest part of the family. ( Vid. chap, 
xv. Compare chap, xxvi.) 

Vocare hostes. "To challenge the foe." The simple vocare is 
here employed for provocare. — Vulnera mereri. " To earn wounds." 



NOTES ON THE GERMANIA. CHAP. XV. 83 

Another poetical form of expression for fortiter pugnare. — Pigrum 
et iners. " Spiritless and inert." 



CHAPTER XV. 

Multum venatibus. The MSS. have non multum, but the negative 
has been rejected from the text by many editors, at the suggestion 
of Lipsius, who in this way seeks to reconcile the account of Tac- 
itus with that of Caesar (B. G., vi., 21), where we find it stated of 
the ancient Germans, that " Vita omnis in venationibus atque in 
studiis rei militaris consistit" So, again (B. G., iv., 1), it is said 
of the ancient Suevi, that " multum sunt in venationibus.'''' — Per otium. 
"Amid total inaction." Observe here the employment of per with 
the accusative, after an ablative (venatibus) in the previous and 
corresponding clause. There appears to be more of continuance 
expressed by the preposition with its case. Longolius cites the 
following instances of this same peculiarity in other parts of Tacitus : 

" Per acies aut proscription. ^ (Ann., i., 2) : " Per obsequium 

prceliis." (Germ., c. 40) : " Virtute aut per artem." (Agric., c. 9) : 
" Temeritate aut per ignaviam." (lb., c. 41.) 

Delegata domus etpenatium, &c. " The care of the house, and fam- 
ily affairs, and of the fields, having been given over to the women," 
&c. The verb delegare or legare properly means, " to commission 
another to act for you." The penates, in strictness, presided over 
the pcnus, or general receptacle of family stores ; and also over the 
operations by which food was rendered more available for human 
purposes. Hence, eventually, they became the guardians of family 
affairs in general. It is in this sense that Tacitus transfers the 
term from Roman to German customs. (Compare Virgil, Mn., i., 
704.) 

Familia. Properly, "the gang of slaves." Here, however, it 
merely means " family." — Mira diversitate naturce. " By a strange 
contrariety in their nature." — Vel armentorum, velfrugum. " Either 
a certain number of cattle, or a certain quantity of grain." These 
genitives may be supposed to depend on aliquid understood, al- 
though Dilthey refers them at once to the quod which follows. — 
Gaudent. Referring to the principes. — Phalerce torquesque. " Rich 
trappings and gold chains." (Consult Diet. Ant., s. v.) 

Jam et pecuniam, &c. The Romans had not only procured the 
friendship of Ariovistus, Segestes, Malovendus, and others, in this 
way, but had also begun to purchase peace of the Germans. (Vid. 
chap, xlii., and compare Ann., ii., 13j Bio Cass., lxvii., 7 ; lxviii., 9.) 



84 NOTES ON THE GERMANIA. CHAP. XVI. 



CHAPTER XVI. 

Nullas Germanorumpopulis, &c. Towns are, however, mentioned 
by Tacitus (Ann., ii., 62), Caesar (B. G., iv., 19), &c. Bekker con- 
tends that Tacitus, deceived by the false reports of others, has made 
a mistake here. As a general rule, however, especially for Germa- 
nia Transrhenana, his observation seems to be correct. For the 
reason of this custom of the ancient Germans, see Hist., iv., 64. — 
Junctas sedes. " Contiguous settlements." — Colunt discreti ac di- 
versi. "They dwell scattered and separate." — Ut fons, ut campus, 
ut nemus, placuit. Traces of this early mode of dwelling remain 
in the endings of the names of many towns and villages, such as 
Born, Bach, Feld, Wald, Hayn, Berg, Stein, Au, Furth, &c, exam- 
ples of which may be found in Cluver's Germania Antiqua, i., 7, 13. 

Connexis et cohcerentibus cedificiis. " With the buildings adjoining 
one another and running on in rows." — Spatio circumdat. This 
mode of building still prevails in Westphalia, in the Spessart Mount- 
ain in Bavaria, and in other quarters of Germany. (Consult M6ser 9 
Osnabruck. Geschichte, p. 142.) 

Ccementorum. " Of building stone." Camenta are, properly, the 
chips made in hewing stones (from c&dere). — Materia ad omnia 
utuntur, &c. " They make use for all purposes of timber unhewn, 
and without any thing pleasing to the eye or calculated to attract." 
Observe the expression extra speciem aut delectationem, which means, 
in fact, that they took no pains to make it look well. Citra implies 
a stopping short of something : it could not have been used if they 
had taken pains to make it ugly. 

Diligentius. " With more than ordinary care." Supply solito. — 
Illinunt. Barth, in his Ur geschichte von Teutschland (ii., p. 249), 
conjectures inlimunt, but, unfortunately, this word is not Latin. — 
Terra itapura ac splendente. A kind of gypsum is meant. — Ut pic- 
turam ac lineamenta, &c. "As to give the appearance of a painting 
and of colored outlines." 

Subterraneos specus aperire. " To dig subterranean caves." Com- 
pare the account which Xenophon gives of the dwellings in the cold 
uplands of Armenia (Anab., iv., 5, 25). — Suffugium hiemi. In these 
subterranean dwellings they appear to have carried on their manu- 
facture of linen. Compare Pliny (H. N., xix., 2) : " Germani autem 
defossi atque sub terra id opus agunt.^ — Aperta populatur. " He lays 
waste merely the open country." Supply loca. — Fallunt. " Escape 
his observation." 



NOTES ON THE GERMANIA. CHAP. XVII. 85 



CHAPTER XVII. 

Sagum. The sagum was a sort of cloak, which covered the 
shoulders and back, and among the Romans was worn chiefly by 
rustics and soldiers. — Fibula, aut, si desit, spina consertum. "Fast- 
ened by a clasp, or, if that be wanting, by a thorn." The rich 
would, of course, use the former, the poor the latter. — Cetera in- 
tecti. Compare Caesar's account of the endurance of cold by the 
Suevi. (B. G., iv., 1.) So Pomponius Mela says of the Germans 
in general : " Maximo f rigor e nudi agunt, antequam puberes sint" 
(iii., 3). 

Nonfluitante. " Not flowing loosely." (Compare Lucan., L, 430 ; 
Pers., iii., 53 ; Juv., ii., 169.) — Sicut Sarmatce ac Parihi. The Ori- 
ental nations, in general, were accustomed to wear loose and flow- 
ing garments. The attire of the Sarmatians and Parthians appears 
on ancient coins. It was imitated by the Vangiones, a German tribe 
on the Rhine, in the territory around Worms and Speier, as we learn 
from Lucan, I. c. — Singulos artus exprimente. " Exhibiting the shape 
of each limb." 

Gerunt et ferarum pelles. Compare Caesar, B. G., iv., 1. — Prox- 
imi ripce negligenter, &c. " Those nearest the bank (of the stream) 
with little care (in their selection), those farther inland displaying 
more research," i. e., the tribes near the Roman frontiers, having 
the means of procuring other kinds of dress, by means of commerce, 
did not use much care in selecting the skins and furs ; those in the 
interior, however, having no such means, were compelled to be 
more particular. Observe that ripce refers to the bank as well of 
the Danube as the Rhine ; in other words, to the whole Roman fron- 
tier. Muretus, Acidalius, and others, are in favor of transposing 
the present arrangement, and of reading u proximi ripce exquisitius, 
ulteriores negligenter" but the explanation just given is a sufficient 
answer to this. 

Et detracta velamina spargunt maculis, &c. " And they diversify 
the skins taken off from them with spots, and with strips of the furs 
of marine animals," &c. All savages are fond of variety of colors, 
hence the practice here alluded to on the part of the Germans. The 
marine animals meant were probably of the seal kind. — Maculis, 
pellibusque. We have placed a comma after maculis, to show that 
we have here no hendiadys, as some maintain, but that the allusion 
in maculis is to actual colored spots, an idea which agrees very well 
with the use of the verb sparger e (compare Virg., Eclog., ii., 41, and 



86 NOTES ON THE GERMANIA. CHAP. XVII., XVIII. 

-* Servius, ad loc), and with the rude taste of the people themselves. 
(Dilthey, ad loc.) — Exterior oceanus atque ignotum mare. According 
to Brotier, the northern ocean and the icy sea. 

■Variant. " They variegate." — Partemque vestitus superioris, &c. 
•-" And they do not lengthen out the upper part of their garment into 
sleeves; they are bare as to their arms below and above." Brachium 
is from the hand to the elbow ; lacertus, from the elbow to the shoul- 
der. (Compare Ovid, Met., i., 501.) 



CHAPTER XVIII. 

Sed et proxima pars pectoris patet, &c. " (Nor this alone), but 
the- part of the bosom immediately adjacent also lies open to the 
view : although their matrimonial engagements are rigidly adhered 
to." There is some doubt with regard to the words at the beginning 
of this chapter, from sed et to patet, several editions exhibiting them 
at the close of the preceding chapter. The arrangement which we 
have adopted seems the neater one of the two. The expression 
quamquam sever a illic matrimonia is intended to be explanatory of 
what immediately precedes, since a Roman reader, judging from 
the license and corruption that characterized so many of the females 
of his own country, would imagine that this nudeness of person on 
the part of the German women betokened a corrupt state of morals. 

Qui non libidine, &e. " Who, not through incontinence (on their 
part), but on account of their rank, are solicited by very many offers 
of marriage," i. e., have numerous wives offered them by the parents 
of these females, in order to derive advantage from the rank and 
influence of the party to whom the offer is made. Compare the ex- 
planation of Forcellini, " quorum favorem et gratiam plurimi captant 
datis in matrimonium filiabus ." We must be careful, however, not 
to confound this mode of speaking with the form of expression em- 
ployed by Virgil (Mn., vii., 333), Ambire cGnnubiis, "to circumvent, 
or win the favor of, by the pretext of a marriage." An illustration 
of the language of Tacitus may be found in the case of Ariovistus, 
as mentioned by Caesar (B. G., i., 53). 

Dotem non uxor marito, &c. Among the Germans, wives were 
bought, as appears from the Saxon laws. Thus (Tit. vi., de Con- 
•jugiis, Lex 1) : " Uxorem ducturus trecentos solidos det parentibus 
ejus : si autem sine voluntate parentum, puella tamen consentiente, ducta 
fuerit, bis trecentos solidos parentibus ejus componat" &c. On this 
whole subject consult Ducange, Gloss., s. v. meta, mundium, widemo ; 
and also the work of Ha^er, " Be ritibus veterum Germanorum circa 



NOTES ON THE GEPwMANIA. CHAP. XVIII., XIX. 87 

matrimonia ineunda." Lips., 1738. — Munera probant. "Pass their 
approbation on the presents," i. e. examine into their sufficiency. 

Munera non ad delicias muliebres quczsita. " Presents not selected 
to gratify a female taste." Literally, "not selected for female de- 
light (in them)," i. e., not such presents as necklaces, bracelets, fine 
attire, &c. The repetition of munera appears objectionable here, 
especially as hac munera follows soon after. Consult Botticher, ad 
loc. — Comatur. "May be adorned." Cbmo is not derived from 
coma, " the hair," but is compounded of co (con) and emo, and signifies, 
therefore, "to put together," "arrange," "adorn." It is a word 
especially applied to the female sex. Compare Terence (Heaut., ii., 
2, 11) : " Dum moliuntur, dum comuntur, annus est.'' 1 

In hcec munera. " On these presents being given." Some, less 
correctly, make in here denote a condition, like knl in Greek, with , 
the dative. — Hoc maximum vinculum, &c. " This they regard as 
the firmest bond of union, these as their mysterious rites, these as 
their conjugal deities." This is all in opposition to Roman cus- 
toms. The arcana sacra, in the case of the latter people, were 
connected with the ceremony of the confarreatio, the taking of the 
auspices, the sacrificing of a sow to Juno, &c. Among the Ger- 
mans, on the other hand, they consisted merely in the giving of 
these simple bridal presents. (Compare Moldenhawer, Altertk., p. 
660, seqq.) 

Extra virtutum cogitationes, &c. "Excused from exertions of 
fortitude, and exempt from the casualties of war." Commentators 
call our attention to the words " bellorum casus putet, ipsis incipien- 
Us" as forming an hexameter verse. So also " Urbem Romam," 
etc. (Ann., i., 1). — Accipere se, quce. liberis inviolata, &c. "That 
she receives, what she is to return inviolate and worthy of their ac- 
ceptance to her children, what her daughters-in-law are to receive, 
and, in their turn, transmit to her grandchildren." Editors differ 
in opinion respecting both the reading and interpretation of this pass- 
age. We have given what appears to be the least objectionable 
one. The allusion can not, of course, be to the juncti boves and 
equus, but the reference must be to the arma, which are not to be 
disgraced by any unfaithful conduct on her part, but to be handed 
down as heir-looms. 



CHAPTER XIX. 
Septa pudicitia. " Fenced around by feelings of chastity." Sev- 
eral editions have septa, which would imply that a strict guard was 



88 NOTES ON THE GERMANIA. CHAP. XIX. 

kept over them, to preserve them from corruption ; whereas septa 
means that their own modesty was a sufficient defence against all 
attempts upon their honor, which agrees much better with the gen- 
eral sense of the description. (Compare Dilthey, ad loc.) — Nullis 
spectaculorum illecebris, &c. " Corrupted by no allurements of pub- 
lic spectacles, by no incitements of convivial entertainments." On 
the corrupting influence of the Roman games and entertainments, 
consult Seneca, Epist., vii., 27 ; Juvenal, Sat., i., 55, seqq. ; Id., xi., 
162, 201, 202. 

Literarum secreta. " Clandestine correspondence in writing.' , 
For an account of the various explanations given to this phrase by 
different editors, consult Dilthey, ad loc. The meaning which we 
have adopted appears the most satisfactory. — Paucissima in tarn nu- 
merosa gente adulteria. On the frequency of this crime at Rome 
under the emperors, consult Ann., ii., 85 ; Juvenal, vi., 488 ; Id., ix., 
22. — Quorum poznaprcEs ens. One of the MSS. has parentibus in place 
of prcescns, a very improbable reading. Even at Rome, before the 
passage of the Lex Julia, the husband might, if he pleased, inflict 
punishment on an unfaithful wife. {Dion. Hal., ii., p. 95 ; Suet., 
Tib., 35.) 

Accisis crinibus. " With her hair cut short." Cutting off the 
hair was regarded as a most disgraceful punishment. (Consult 
Du Cange, Gloss., s. v. Decalvatio.) In Luitprand's Laws of the 
Langobardi (ii., 17) we find it ordered, u adulter as decalvari etfusti- 
gari per vicos vicinantes ipsius loci." — Per omnem vicum. Equivalent 
to per totum vicum. — Publicata enim pudicitice, &c. " For no indul- 
gence is shown to open prostitution : such an offender will not find 
a husband by beauty, nor by youth, nor by riches." Literally, " to 
prostituted modesty," publicata being here equivalent to vulgatce. 
Lipsius suggests etiam in place of enim, on the ground that Tacitus 
refers now not to the adulterous females just spoken of, but to un- 
wedded ones. This is all very true, and yet he entirely mistakes 
the meaning of the writer. The latter is merely assigning a reason 
for the severe punishment of adultery among the Germans ; and 
this is because no indulgence is shown to a prostitute. For he who 
would spurn the idea of wedding a prostitute would certainly not 
tolerate a prostitute in wedlock. (Walther, ad loc.) 

Nemo enim illic vitia ridet, &c. A bitter allusion to the contrast 
afforded by the vices of his own countrymen. — Saculum. " The 
fashion of the age." Compare Seneca : " Desinit esse remedio locus, 
ubi, qua fuerant vitia, mores sunt." 

Melius quidem adhuc e<z civitates, " Still better, indeed, do those 






NOTES ON THE GERMANIA. CHAP. XIX., XX. 89 

communities (of the Germans) act." Supply agunt. The later 
Latin writers use adhuc to strengthen comparatives, where the 
earlier ones (Cicero, for example) would have employed etiam. 
Compare Seneca (Epist., 49), "Adhuc paulo minus:" Id. ib., 47, 
" Adhuc tenuior est :" Suet., Tib., 17, " Amplior adhuc cumulus ," &c. 

Et cum spe votoque uxoris semel transigitur. " And (in which) the 
expectations and wishes of a wife are brought to a close once for 
all." Literally, " and (in which) it is done for with the expectation 
and wish of a wife once for all." According to Procopius (ii., 14), 
wives among the Heruli were accustomed to hang themselves by 
the graves of their first and only husbands. This is like the prac- 
tice of the Suttees in India. (Dilthey, ad loc.) — Ne ulla cogitatio ultra, 
ne longior cupiditas. " That there may be no further thought, no 
more prolonged desire (of union)." — Tamquam matrimonium. " As 
marriage itself." On losing their husbands, they lose marriage itself. 

Finire. " To limit," i. e., by murder or abortion. — Ex agnatis. 
By agnati Tacitus means children born after there was already an 
heir to the name and property of the father. Generally, by agnati, 
in Roman law, were meant relations by the father's side. On the 
frequency of infanticide among the Romans, see Ann., hi., 25, 26 ; 
xv., 19. Juvenal, ii-, 32 ; vi., 366, seqq. — Quam alibi bonce leges. 
Corruption was never more rife at Rome than after the passage of 
the Lex Julia and the Lex Papia Poppaza. The earliest laws of the 
Germans, those, namely, of the Salic code, date only from the fifth 
century of our era. 



CHAPTER XX. 

Nudi. Partial, not entire, nudity is of course meant. Compare 
the commencement of chapter xvii. ; consult, also, the commenta- 
tors on Virgil, Georg., i., 299. — Sordidi. This term appears rather to 
have reference to their attire, scanty as it was, than to their persons. 
Filthiness of person would hardly be consistent with the health and 
strength which they enjoyed. In chapter xxii., we are told of their 
washing themselves with warm water in the cold season ; and 
Caesar (B. G., iv., 1) mentions their bathing in rivers. 

Uberibus. The term ubera is generally used when speaking of 
animals. Among the ancient Germans the mother used to nurture 
the child with the breast for the space of two years, if no new off- 
spring were born during the interval. Hence the basis of good 
health laid for the race during infancy. — Nee ancillis ac nutricibus 
delegantur. Among the Romans, on the contrary, the care of the 



90 NOTES ON THE GERMANIA. CHAP. XX. 

child was generally given over to Greek nurses, and some of the 
common domestic slaves. (Consult Dial, de Or., c. 29.) 

Dominum ac servum. The subject class among the ancient Ger- 
mans may be divided into three branches : 1. Tributaries, composed 
of those who, when any country was conquered, retained their pos- 
sessions, but paid an annual tribute to the conquerors for this priv- 
ilege. 2. Serfs {adscript! glebce). 3. Common household slaves 
(servi, mancipia). — Nullis educationis deliciis. " By no indulgence in 
the mode of bringing up." — Donee cetas separet ingenuos, virtus ag- 
noscat. " Until age separates the free-born, (until) valor recognizes 
(them for her own)." Observe here the force of agnoscere, " to 
recognize or acknowledge for what has been previously expected 
or wished." Brotier thinks that the age here meant was the twelfth 
year, when, as appears from the Salic code (Tit., xxviii.), the boy 
first became amenable to the laws. It would seem, however, from 
chapter xiii., that a somewhat later period is referred to. 

Sera juvenum Venus, &c. " The marriages of the ycung men are 
(comparatively) late, and therefore the years of puberty have no 
drain upon them." Tacitus is here comparing northern with south- 
ern habits. In Italy, and other southern countries, the sexes arrive 
at maturity much sooner than among northern nations. Cicero's 
daughter, for example, was betrothed at ten years of age, and mar- 
ried probably at thirteen or fourteen. As regards what is here said 
of the German youth, compare the language of Caesar, B. G., vi., 21 : 
" Qui diutissime impuberes per mans erunt," &c. 

Nee virgines festinantur, &c. " Neither are the virgins brought 
forward early ; there is the same long period of youth, a similar de- 
velopment of form. They are united equally-matched and robust," 
&c. — Ac robora parentum liberi referunt. " And the children inherit 
the vigorous constitutions of their parents." Literally, " bring back 
again," i. e., exhibit again to the view. 

Sororum filiis, &c. Hence, in the history of the Merovingian 
kings of France, so many instances occur of attachment and favor 
shown toward sisters and their children, and so many wars under- 
taken on their account. (Montesquieu, Esprit des Lois, xviii., 22.) 
— Qui apud pair em. "As by the father." Literally, " as with the 
father." We have retained apud in the text, from the conjec- 
ture of Rhenanus, with the best editors. The previous reading was 
ad patrem, which Passow very unnecessarily recalls, and Walther 
attempts, though not very clearly, to defend. The origin of the cus- 
tom mentioned in the text has never been satisfactorily explained. 
It may, perhaps, have arisen from the circumstance of the sister's 



NOTES ON THE GERMANIA.— CHAP. XX., XXI. 91 

both before marriage and during widowhood, being under the guardi- 
anship of the brother, if there w T ere no father living. (Compare 
Dilthey, ad loc.) 

Et in accipiendis obsidibus magis exigunt. The meaning is, that, 
in taking hostages from any one, they demand the children of his 
sister rather than his own children. — Tamquam ii et animum firmius, 
&c. " As if these both hold a,firmer sway over the affections, and 
exercise a wider influence over the family at large." They are not 
only dear to the father, but equally dear to the mother's brother. 

Haredes tamen, &c. The German laws of inheritance may be 
learned from the Salic code, Tit., lxii., de Alodis. — Libert. Under 
the term liberi are here included the nepotes and pronepotes. — Nullum 
testamerttum. There was no will, because the rules of succession 
were established by law. — Patrui, avunculi. " Paternal uncles, ma- 
ternal ones." 

Quanto plus propinquorum, &c. " The more blood-relations there 
are, the greater the number of relatives by the mother's side, in so 
much higher favor stands old age ; nor are there any advantages in 
being childless." Propinqui are those with whom there exists any 
relationship by blood ; cognati, relations by the mother's side ; ag- 
nati, relations by the father's side ; affines, relations by marriage. — 
Nee ulla orbitatis pretia. There is no advantage, says Tacitus, in 
being childless among the Germans, as there is among the Romans ; 
and he alludes in this to the court paid at Rome unto rich persons 
without children by the H&redipeia, or legacy-hunters. This prac- 
tice formed a frequent subject of censure and ridicule with the Ro- 
man writers. Consult Cic, Farad., v., 2; Horat., Sat., ii., 5; Id. 
Epist., i, 1, 78 ; Plin., Epist., iv., 15; Senec., Cons, ad Max., ii., 
119 ; Juvenal, xii., 95 ; Tac. } Ann., xiii., 52 ; Id. ib., xiv., 40 ; Petron., 
i. 116 ; Martial, iv., 58 ; Ammian. Marcell., xiv., 6. 



CHAPTER XXI. 

Suscipere. " To adopt." This inheriting, as it were, of enmities 
is an old evil in all nations, whose political organization is based 
upon family and clan relationships. On its existence among the 
Greeks, consult the remarks of Muller (Eumenides, p. 126). — Nee 
implacabiles durant. " These (enmities), however, do not continue 
implacable." It was a wise provision, that among this fierce and 
warlike people revenge should be commuted for a payment. — Horn- 
icidium. This w T ord occurs also in Pliny the elder, Petronius, and 
Quinctilian, but never in the w r riters of the golden age of Latinity. 



92 NOTES ON THE GERMANIA. CHAP. XXI. 

— Recipitque satis j 'actionem universa domus. " And the whole family 
of the offender becomes responsible for the payment of the fine." 
Compare the Salic code {Leg., i., 2), as given by Brotier, where 
traces of such a law may be found. It was abolished by King Chil- 
debert (Decret., 1. 15). Some, less correctly, explain the present 
passage so as to mean, that the whole of the family of the injured 
person receives part of the fine ; others, that by the payment of the 
fine to the prosecutor the vengeance of the whole family is satisfied. 
The use of recipere in the sense of "to make one's self responsible 
for" is not uncommon. (Compare Cic, Phil., v., 18 ; Ep. ad Att., 
v., 17; Liv., xxxiii., 13.) 

Utiliter in publicum. " (An arrangement) fraught with advantage 
to the public." Literally, " in a way useful to the public." So in 
commune alacres. (Ann.,x.v., 12.) — Juxta libertatem. "When united 
with freedom," i. e., in a free state. 

Convictibus et hospitiis. " In common tables and acts of hospi- 
tality." Compare our own phrase, " to keep open house." On the 
hospitality of the German race, consult Du Cange, Gloss., s. v. Hos- 
pitalitas ; and also Lindenblatt, " de hospitalitate et hospitio veterum." 
Stettin, 1825, 4to. — Arcere tecto. " To exclude from one's roof." — 
Pro fortuna quisque, &c. " Each one entertains (his guest) with a 
carefully prepared banquet according to his means." Compare the 
explanation of Jacobs : " Secundum co-nditionem suam et opes excipit 
peregrinantes et ad domum suam accedente^y 

Cum defecere. " When the means of entertainment have failed," 
i. e., have become exhausted. Supply epulce. — Monstrator hospitii 
et comes. "Becomes the guide and companion to the hospitable 
board of another," i. e., shows him another house where he may be 
hospitably entertained, and accompanies him thither. — Pari human- 
itate. " With equal cordiality," i. e., with the same cordiality as if 
they had been invited guests. 

Abeunti, si quid poposcerit, &c. " It is a part of their customs to 
give unto him who is departing whatever he may have asked, and 
there is the same freedom of asking in return." — Sed nee data im- 
putant, &c. " But they neither consider that they confer an obliga- 
tion by what they give, nor do they hold themselves bound by what 
they receive." Observe here the middle signification of obligantur. 
The passive of many verbs in Latin has not only a properly pass- 
ive meaning, but also a reflective one. In other words, a middle 
voice is found not only in Greek, but in Latin also. (Zumpt, § 
146.) 

Victus inter hospites comis. " Their manner of living with their 



NOTES ON THE GERMANIA. CHAP. XXI., XXII. 93 

regular guests is marked by easy affability." After describing the 
general hospitality of the Germans, and their reception of mere 
strangers, Tacitus here speaks of their mode of receiving and en- 
tertaining regularly-invited guests, or, in other words, those con- 
nected with them by the ties of hospitality. ( Waltker, ad loc.) Some 
editors look upon this sentence as a mere gloss, or marginal note, 
which has got inserted into the text. Others consider comis as 
arising from a contracted mode of writing communis in the MSS. 
Others take comis to mean, "without any suspicion of deceit or 
treachery." Just as comiter is equivalent to sine dolo malo. The 
explanation of Walther, however, as given above, removes every 
difficulty. 



CHAPTER XXII. 

Quern plerumque in diem, &c. Compare chap. xv. : " Dediti som- 
no ciboque." — Lavantur. " They bathe." Middle force. Compare 
note on obligantur in previous chapter. — Plurimum. " During the 
greatest part of the year." Supply temporis. — Separatee singulis 
sedes, &c. Eating at separate tables is generally an indication of 
voracity. Traces of it occur, also, in the Homeric poems. 

Diem noctemque continuare, &c. " To keep drinking day and night, 
without intermission, is disgraceful to no one." More literally, " to 
make day and night continuous by drinking." The love of drinking 
was common to the Germans, with their stem-relatives, the Per- 
sians. (Compare Xen., Cyrop., viii., 8.) — Ut inter vinolentos. "As 
is natural among a people addicted to drink." Rhenanus conjec- 
tures violentos, because the Germans were without any wine ! But 
consult the commencement of the succeeding chapter. 

Sed et de reconciliandis, &c. Herodotus relates the same thing of 
the Persians (i., 133 ; ii., 72), and Plutarch of the Greeks. (Sympos., 
viii., 9.) — Invicem. "Mutually." — Tamquam nullo magis tempore, 
&c. " As if the breast at no time lies open more for the entertain- 
ing of sincere thoughts, or warms more for the reception of heroic 
ones." Various explanations have been given of the epithet sim- 
plices in this passage. The best is that which makes it equivalent 
to nudas, nonfucatas, i. e., " sincere, ingenuous, undisguised." (Con- 
sult Walther, ad loc.) 

Gens non astuta, nee callida, &c. " This nation, neither acute nor 
crafty, still disclose the secrets of their breasts amid the freedom 
of festivity." Observe here the force of adhicc, as rightly explained 
by Passow. Tacitus is again contrasting the Germans with the 
Romans, from the latter of whom the former, according to him, 



94 NOTES ON THE GERMANIA. CHAP. XXII., XXIII. 

have not yet learned the art of hiding the secret sentiments of the 
bosom. Some, less correctly, render adhuc here "moreover," 
making it equivalent to insuper. 

Omnium mens. " The plans and opinions of all." — Et salva utrius- 
que temporis ratio est. " And the account of each time is kept 
even." The expression salva ratio is properly used when the debtor 
and creditor sides of an account balance one another. So here 
Tacitus means to say, that by the method they pursued of delibera- 
ting when they knew not how to dissemble, and deciding when there 
was no chance of their erring, they kept the balance even ; so that 
their rashness and caution mutually checked and restrained each 
other. 

The following remarks of Passow deserve to be inserted here. 
In almost every instance, he observes, that is mentioned in this 
chapter, the habits of the Romans were opposed to those of the 
Germans. They used to rise before daylight, to play at ball or take 
exercise of some kind before they washed or bathed ; at dinner to 
use seats which were joined together ; by the laws of the Twelve 
Tables they were forbidden to appear in arms in the city ; to drink 
in the daytime was esteemed disgraceful ; and, lastly, mutual diffi- 
dence and distrust prevailed at their banquets. (Passow, ad loc.) 



CHAPTER XXIII. 

Potui humor ex hordeo, &c. " For drink they have a liquor made 
out of barley or wheat, changed by fermentation into a kind of re- 
semblance to wine." The allusion here is to ale or beer. Malt 
liquors appear to have been very commonly used among many of 
the ancient nations ; thus we find mention made of the &dog of the 
Egyptians (Herod., ii., 77) ; the Kovpfti of the Egyptians, Spaniards, 
and Britons (Dioscor., ii., 81) ; the cerevisia or cervisia of the Gauls, 
&c. Most of the passages in ancient authors which relate to beer 
or malt-drinks have been collected by Meibomius, " De Cervisiis Ye- 
terun^ (Gronov., Thes. Ant. Grcec, vol. ix., p. 548, seqq.). — Corruptus. 
This term does not necessarily imply being spoiled ; it would be ap- 
plied to any natural production of which the character is completely 
changed by art to adapt it to the use of man. 

Proximi ripce et vinum mercantur. u Those who border on the 
river's bank also buy wine." The reference is to the banks of the 
Rhine and Danube, but more particularly the former. (Compare 
chap, xvii.) According to Csesar (B. G. iv., 2), they allowed no wine 
to be brought in among them. The first vines were introduced into 
JJermany by the Emperor Probus, as is thought. (Vopisc, c. 19.) 



NOTES ON THE GERMANIA. CHAP. XXIII., XXIV. 



95 



Agrestia poma. " Wild fruit." Pomum is a very general term, 
and includes any eatable fruit. — Recens fera. " Fresh venison." 
Supply caro. Some, misled by the language of Pomponius Mela 
(iii., 3) and Florus (iii., 13), think that raw flesh is meant. But 
recens fera is nothing else than fera recens capta. — Lac concretum. 
" Coagulated milk." Curds are meant, rather than cheese, although 
the latter was likewise an article of German diet. Compare Caesar 
(B. G., vi., 22) : " Major pars victus eorum in lacte, caseo, came con- 
sistit" Some suppose butter to be here meant, but this was rather 
the food of the higher classes. Compare Pliny (H. N., xxviii., 9) : 
" E lacte fit butyrum, barbararum gentium laudatissimus cibus, et qui 
divites a plebe discernat" 

Sine blandimentis . "Without any coaxings (of the appetite)." 
The contrast between this and Roman luxury was striking enough. 
(Compare Pliny, H. N., ix., 17.) — Temperantia. "Self-control." 
— Ebrietati. "Their propensity to intoxication." — Haud min%s 
facile, &c. This is not to be understood as meaning that the Ger- 
mans were easy to be conquered by arms, but merely that their own 
vices proved formidable means of subjugation. 



CHAPTER XXIV. 

Nudi juvenes, quibus id ludicrum est, &c. " Naked youths, who 
engage in this sport, throw somersets amid swords and framese 
pointed at them." Observe that there is nothing in infestus itself 
which ever implies hostility. Festus is only the old participle of 
fero, like gestus from gero. The following wood-cut, from the 
Museo Borbonico (vol. vii., tav. 58), may throw light on the species 
of diversion here referred to. 




96 NOTES ON THE GERMANIA. CHAP. XXIV., XXV. 

Ars decorem. " Skill (has produced) gracefulness of movement." 
Decor is properly a poetical word, and was probably not employed 
in prose until after the Augustan age. It is especially frequent in 
Quintilian. — Non in qucestum tamen, out mercedem. " (They do) not, 
however, (do this) as a trade, or for hire." Supply hocfaciunt. The 
case was far different with the Romans, in both their scenic and 
circensian celebrations. — Pretium. " The recompense." 

Aleam (quod mirere), &c. Although the Romans were much ad- 
dicted to gambling (see Juvenal, i., 88; viii., 10; xi., 174), yet it 
w r as esteemed disreputable, and was forbidden by the laws, except 
during the Saturnalia. (Cic, Phil, ii., 23; Hor., Od., iii., 24, 58.) 

Quamvis .juvenior . The more usual form is junior ; still, however, 
the more regularly constructed juvenior is defended in the present 
passage and elsewhere by good MSS. (Consult Gierig, ad Plin., 
Epist., iv., 8, 5.) — Ea est in re prava pervicacia. " Such is their ob- 
stinate perseverance in a bad practice." A scholiast on Horace 
(Epod., xviii., 14) explains the term pervicacia (in accordance with 
its derivation from per and vinco) as applicable, properly, to a person 
who maintains a contest until he gets the victory : il pervicaces sunt, 
qui in aliquo certamine ad vincendum p er s ever ant. ^ (Dilthey, ad loc.) 

Ipsi fidem vocant. The good faith of the ancient Germans in keep- 
ing their promises was proverbial. (Compare Ann., xiii., 54.) — Tra- 
dunt. " They hand over to others," i. e., they rid themselves of. 



CHAPTER XXV. 

Discriptis per familiam ministeriis. " In services distributed 
throughout the household." The true reading here is undoubtedly 
discriptis, which, though of frequent occurrence in the MSS., is 
commonly altered in the editions to descriptis. The derivation of 
this latter form, however, does not lead to the idea of distribution, 
since describere is merely " to mark out, to copy," &c. 

Non in nostrum morem. The Romans went to a very great length 
in appointing different slaves to superintend the various depart- 
ments of their domestic economy. Among the wealthy, in later 
times, there was scarcely a single household duty that was not al- 
lotted to some particular slave, who attended to that and nothing 
else. Lists of these slaves may be seen in Dilthey {ad loc), but 
more particularly in Blair, "Inquiry into the State of Slavery among 
the Romans, 1 '' p. 131, seqq. 

Quisque. "Each slave." The slaves here meant, as appears 
from what follows, were a kind of rustic bondsmen, and their con- 



NOTES ON THE GERMANIA. CHAP. XXV. 97 

diiion was the same as that of the vassals, or serfs, who a few cen- 
turies ago made up the great body of the people in every country 
in Europe. They were attached to the soil, and went with it like 
the Roman coloni, and hence we see why each had an abode (sedes) 
of his own, and regulated his own household affairs (suos penates). 
The Germans, at a later period, imitating the Romans, had slaves 
of inferior condition, to whom the name of slave became appropri- 
ated ; while those in the state of rural vassalage were called. Liden 
(Liti or Litones). (Consult Grimm, Deutsche Rcchts alter thumer, p. 
300, seqq.) 

Ut colono. " As upon a tenant," i. e., as upon one of those whom 
we Romans term coloni. The term colonus is here employed in the 
sense which it had during the later imperial period. The coloni paid 
a certain yearly rent for the land on which they lived, and were at- 
tached to the soil (glebce adscripti), from which, as a general rule, 
they could not be separated. (Consult Diet. Ant., s. v. Prcedium.) 
— Et servus hactenus paret. " And the slave thus far obeys," i. e., 
the slave is not bound to render any other services. 

Cetera domus officia, &c. " The other, (which are) household 
duties, his own wife and children discharge." Domus here refers 
to the house of the master, and not, as Passow erroneously supposes, 
to that of the slave. The Germans did not employ slaves at this 
period in household duties, but used for this purpose the services of 
their own wives and children. (Orelli, ad loc.) Observe, moreover, 
the peculiar employment of cetera in the present passage, and com- 
pare the explanation of Walther, " cetera officia, scilicet domus official 

Verberare servum, &c. Tacitus opposes this to the cruelty of 
masters among the Romans. Various laws were enacted by Ser- 
vius Tullius, Augustus, Hadrian, and others, to check the cruelty 
of the Romans toward their slaves. (Consult Seneca, de Ira, ill, 
40 ; Id., de Clem., i., 18 ; Id., Epist., 46, 47 ; Plin., H. N., ix., 23 ; 
Juvenal, vi., 219 ; Heyne, Opusc, vol. iii., p. 189.) 

Non disciplina et severitate, &c. " Not in the way of chastise- 
ment, and from any severe infliction of the same, but from the im- 
pulse of the moment, and anger (in particular, as the exciting 
cause)." We must be careful not to regard this as a mere hendi- 
adys for disciplina severitate and impetu ira. It is, in reality, a 
much stronger form of expression. Compare the remarks of Bot- 
ticher on the so-called figure %v Sta Svolv in Tacitus, p. xlvi. — Nisi 
quod impune. "Except that they do it with impunity," i. e., kill a 
slave with impunity. A private enemy could not be slain with 
impunity, since a fine ( Wergeld) was affixed to homicide ; but a 

E 



98 NOTES ON THE GERMANIA. CHAP. XXV. 

man might kill his own slave without any punishment. If, however, 
he killed another person's slave, he was obliged to pay his price to 
the owner. {Grimm, Deutsche Rechtsalt., p. 289.) 

Liber tini non multum supra servos sunt. Among the Franks, the 
freedmen seldom attained to the full right of those who were free- 
born. They could not inherit property, or give testimony against 
free-born men. If a freedman, moreover, died without children, his 
property went to the treasury, as appears from the Ripuarian code. 
(Tit., lvii., 1.4.) All the editions before that of Ernesti have Liberti 
here, for which that editor correctly substituted Libertini, in accord- 
ance with the strict distinction between the two terms. (Compare 
Cic., in Verr., i., 47.) Walther, Dilthey, and others oppose the 
change, but on very unsatisfactory grounds. The reference is not 
to the freedmen of particular masters or families, but to freedmen 
considered as a class. Hence the employment of the term libertini 
immediately after (impares libertini), and which confirms Ernesti's 
emendation. 

Raro aliquod momentum in domo. " They rarely possess any 
weight in the family." Supply habent. — Qua regnantur. " Which 
are governed by kings." Literally, " which are reigned over." 
Such, for example, were the Gotones, mentioned in chapter xliii., 
and the Suiones in chapter xliv. Unto a Roman, after the experi- 
ence afforded by a Nero and a Domitian, the terms monarchy and 
despotism had become almost synonymous. — This employment of 
regno in the passive voice departs from common usage, since in the 
active voice it is used intransitively. Similar instances, however, 
occur in other parts of Tacitus ; as, for example, in chapter xliii. of 
the present treatise ; in Ann., xiii., 54 ; and in Hist., i., 16. So, also, 
in Pliny, H. N.,yL, 23. (Compare Drakcnborch, ad Liv., i., 17, 3, 
and Botticher, Lex. Tac., p. 17.) 

Ibi enim et super ingenuos, &c. A state of things exactly parallel 
to this existed among the Romans during the reigns of some of the 
worst of their emperors, when the pride of the nobility was so much 
lowered by the power and insolence to which freedmen attained by 
making themselves subservient to the vices of the prince. — Apud 
ceteros impares libertini, &c. " Among the rest, the subordinate con- 
dition of the freedmen is a proof of the value of freedom," i. e., the 
fact that freedmen are held in such light estimation is a proof of the 
value set upon freedom and the rights of freemen. 



NOTES ON THE GERMANIA.— CHAP. XXVI. 99 



CHAPTER XXVI. 

Fenus agitare, &c. " To lend out money upon interest, and to 
increase it by means of usurious practices, is unknown (among 
them)." The expression in usuras is a poetic one for usuris or per 
usuras. Commentators make a great difficulty with this simple 
passage. Their various opinions may be seen stated by Weishaupt, 
p. 379. One of the worst of these is that advanced by Walther, 
who makes fenus have here the meaning merely of " capital," a 
signification which, as Freund correctly remarks, is extremely rare. 
Tacitus is silently comparing German with Roman manners. At 
Rome the most exorbitant usury was practiced, whereas the Ger- 
mans are here described as not only strangers to usurious exactions, 
but even to the lending out of money on interest at all. 

Ideoque magis servatur, &c. " And, therefore, the abstaining from 
this practice is more effectually observed than if the practice itself 
had been forbidden by law." A remarkable instance of conciseness 
in the original, which can not be imitated in a translation. The ref- 
erence to what precedes is rather a mental than a grammatical one, 
and we must, therefore, supply with servatur some such expression 
as abstinentia a fenore agitando. On this usage of language, consult 
the remarks of Perizonius, ad Sanct. Minerv., iv., 8, note v. Some 
commentators give servatur here the meaning of " is provided 
against," " is avoided," without any ellipsis ; but for this there is 
no authority. — Lege vetitum esset. Usury was forbidden at Rome, 
though in vain, by the laws of the Twelve Tables, and by various 
enactments made by Licinius, Genucius, Sempronius, Julius Caesar, 
and others. The Germans were free from it, on account of their 
little acquaintance with moneyed transactions. 

Agri, pro numero cultorum, &c. " The lands are occupied by 
whole communities in turn, according to the number of persons to 
till them." The true reading here is undoubtedly in vices, and the 
meaning of the passage is, that the same territories were occupied 
by different tribes or communities in tarn, to a greater or less ex- 
tent, according to the number of persons to till them. The best 
commentary on Tacitus here is to be found in the account given by 
Caesar of the Suevi (B. G., iv., 1). Some commentators, however, 
disregarding the authority of Caesar, read vicis for in vices, and think 
that the Germans did not live in the manner of nomad tribes to such 
a degree as is commonly supposed ; but that individuals had pos- 
sessions of their own, which they retained, without any of the ex- 



100 NOTES ON THE GERMANIA. CHAP. XXVI., XXVII. 

changes mentioned above. This view of the subject, however, 
wants confirmation in every respect. 

Arvaper annos mutant, &c. " They change the arable lands every 
year, and a portion of ground remains over and above (each di- 
vision)," i. e., there is always a portion of ground that remains un- 
divided. This was allowed to lie fallow until new cultivators took 
possession of it the ensuing year. There was no danger, therefore, 
of the land's becoming exhausted by repeated sowings on the part 
of each successive body of settlers, since all the land was not put 
under culture at any one time. They who adopt the reading vicis, 
however, understand the sentence to mean that, instead of sowing 
the same land every year, they change about, and suffer some plots 
to lie fallow, while others are ploughed. 

Nee enim cum ubertate, &c. " Nor, indeed, do they attempt to vie 
in their exertions with the fertility and extent of the soil," i. e., they 
do not pretend to bestow on the culture of the ground a degree of 
labor that may equal its fertility and extent. This, it will be per- 
ceived, serves particularly to explain the expression superest ager, 
which precedes. — Sola terra, seges imperatur. " A crop of corn is 
alone demanded of the earth, i. e., they merely cultivate the ground 
for a harvest of grain, paying no attention to fruit-trees, the vine, &c. 

Species. "Seasons." — Intellectum ac vocabula habent. "Are 
known and have names." The employment of the noun intellectus 
here indicates the silver age of Latinity, and intellectum habent is to 
be regarded as equivalent to intelliguntur } i. e., nota sunt.' — Auctumni 
perinde nomen, &c. Particularly the grape and olive. Tacitus was 
probably mistaken in saying that they had no name for this season. 
Herbst, or herbist (whence the English term harvest), appears to have 
been its name. In Eginhart's Life of Charlemagne (c. 29) the 
month of November is called Herbist-monat. 



CHAPTER XXVII. 
Funerum nulla ambitio. " There is no parade about their funer- 
als." Among the Romans it was. directly the reverse. (Compare 
Seneca, de Brev. Vit., 20 ; Plin., H. N., xii., 41 ; Tac, Ann., iii., 2.) 
Among the Gauls, also, funeral ceremonies were " magnifica et sum- 
tuosa." (Ccbs., B. G., vi., 19. — Dilthey, ad h. I.) — Certis lignis ere- 
mentur. " Be reduced to ashes by means of particular kinds of 
wood," i. e., those kinds of wood that were set apart for this purpose 
by law or custom. The bodies of the dead were generally burned 
among the ancient Germans, and this custom continued even after 



NOTES ON THE GERMANIA. CHAP. XXVII. 101 

the introduction of Christianity, until forbidden under pain of capi- 
tal punishment by Charlemagne. {Mon. Paderborn., p. 302.) The 
ashes were preserved in funeral urns, which were deposited in 
tombs, and have often been dug up in modern times. (Consult Pauli, 
11 Romische und Teutsche Alter th. am Rhein." Maynz, 1821; and 
Busching, " Die heidnischen Alterthumer Schlesiens," 1821, &c.) 

Struem rogi. "The heap of the funeral pile," i. e., the wood 
heaped up or arranged into the form of a funeral pile. — Nee vestibus, 
nee odoribus. Another opposition to Roman customs. Among the 
Romans, when the flames of the pile began to rise, various perfumes 
were thrown into the fire, and also cups of oil, ornaments, vest- 
ments, dishes of food, and other things which were supposed to be 
agreeable to the deceased. (Virg., Mn., vi., 225 ; Stat., Theb., vi., 
126 ; Lucan, ix., 175.) 

Sua cuique arma, &c. The deceased was supposed to follow the 
same occupations after death as in life. Similar customs on the 
part of the natives of India, and also the Scythians, Getse, Thracians, 
and Gauls, are alluded to by Herod., iv., 71 ; Cces., B. G.,\\., 19 ; 
Pomp. Mel., ii., 2 ; Vol. Max., ii., 1 ; Solin., 10, &c. On opening 
the tomb of one of the old Frank kings, a horse-shoe was found, the 
earliest specimen of the kind known. — Sepulcrum cespes erigit. " A 
mound of turf forms the elevation of the tomb," i. e., the tomb is a 
mound of turf. Compare, as regards the Latinity of this passage, 
the language of Seneca (Ep., 8) : " Hanc domum utrum cespes erexerit, 
an varius lapis.'''' Mounds, or, as they are also called, barrows (in 
Latin, tumuli), and in which the ashes of the dead were deposited, 
are of frequent occurrence in Germany, Britain, and other countries. 

Monumentorum arduum et operosum honor em, &c. " They contemn 
the lofty and laborious honor of monumental structures, as burden- 
some to the dead." Compare the version of Botticher : '« Der Denk- 
m'dler hochragende, muhevolle Ehre verschmahen sie." Tacitus had in 
view the splendid mausoleum of Augustus, as well as the other lofty 
and expensive funeral structures in the vicinity of the Roman capi- 
tal. He does not, however, appear to have been aware of the ex- 
istence of the celebrated Hunenbetten (i. e., mortuorum lecti) in Ger- 
many. Consult Klemm, Germ. Alter th., p. 102, and the representa- 
tions given of these tombs in plate vi. of that work. 

Lugere. " To bewail the loss of friends." Lugeo and luctus 
always refer to mourning for the dead. (Compare Doderlein, Lat. 
Syn., iii., p. 237.) — Singularum gentium. " Of individual tribes." 
In enumerating the different tribes of Germany, Tacitus follows this 
order : In chapter xxviii. he speaks of those who did not properly 



102 NOTES ON THE GERMANIA. CHAP. XXVII., XXVIII. 

belong to Germany ; in chapters xxix. and xxxiv., of those who in- 
habited the banks of the Rhine, toward the west ; in chapters xxxv. 
and xxxvii., of those who dwelt on the banks of the Rhine, toward 
the north ; in chapters xxxviii. and xli. we have the members of 
the Suevic league commemorated ; in chapters xlii. and xliii., those 
who dwelt along the Danube ; in chapters xliv. and xlv., those who 
bordered on the Northern Ocean ; and, in chapter xlvi., those who 
dwelt beyond the ocean, partly fabulous people. 



CHAPTER XXVIII. 

Validiores olim Gallorum, &c. " The deified Julius, the highest 
of authorities, relates, that the affairs of the Gauls were formerly in 
a more powerful condition than those of the Germans," i. e., that 
the Gauls were formerly the more powerful people. The reference 
here is to the Sixth Book of Caesar's Gallic Commentaries (cap. 
24). — Eoque credihile est, &c. Compare Cas., B. G., vi., 24. 

Quantulum enim amnis obstabat. " For how small an obstacle did 
a river oppose." The Rhine, as is well known, has never been a 
limit to the movements of tribes and communities. — Promiscuas ad- 
huc, &c. " As yet lying in common, and divided off by no power 
of monarchies," i. e., and unappropriated by any powerful monar- 
chies. Some MSS. have diversas, which forms no bad reading, di- 
ver si being used in the sense of separated in Ann., xv., 56. 

Igitur. For a similar use of igitur, at the beginning of a sen- 
tence, see Vit. Agr., c. 13. — Hercyniam silvam. Consult Geograph- 
ical Index, s. v. — Moznum. The Mcenus, otherwise written Maenus, 
is now the River Main. The intermediate forms of the name are 
the Mohin and Moin. (Bischoff und Mbller, W'drterb. der Geogr., p. 
718.) — Ulteriora Boii. For an account of the once powerful tribe of 
the Boii, consult Geographical Index, s. v. Tacitus makes them to 
have been of Gallic origin, but they were, more probably, a Ger- 
manic race. Von Hammer, who is an advocate for the Oriental 
origin of the name Germani (Germanen), traces that of the Boii to 
the Persian " Boia." (Ferhengi Sehuuri, B., 221, V. — Kruse, Archiv., 
&c, Heft ii., p. 128.) 

Boiemi nomen. " The name of Boiemum." Boiemum, or Boihe- 
mum, probably means, "the home of the Boii" (heim, heimath). 
Some, however, as, for example, Wersebe, think that by Boiemum 
is meant what Caesar calls " oppidum Boiorum" (B. G., vii., 9) in 
Gallia, now Beaujolois. — Significatque loci veterem memoriam. " And 
implies a long-standing reminiscence of the original settlement." — 



NOTES ON THE GERMANIA. CHAP. XXVIII. 103 

Quamvis mutatis cultoribus. Observe that quamvis is here for quam- 
quam, a usage occurring only in the later prose writers. (Gruber, 
ad loc.) 

Sed utrum Aravisci, &c. Tacitus here calls the Osi a German 
nation, whereas in chapter xliii. he remarks, that their use of the 
Pannonian tongue proves them to be not Germans. Some editors 
think that in the present passage their settlements only are referred 
to, but the contradiction is too manifest to be remedied in this way. 
Passow regards Germanorum natione as an interpolation, which is, 
probably, the true opinion, though rejected by Walther and others. 
— Eadem utriusque ripce bona malaque erant. " There were the same 
advantages and disadvantages on both sides of the stream," i. e., 
there was the same freedom and the same poverty. The river 
meant is the Danube. 

Treveri et Nervii. Consult Geographical Index, s. v. — Circa ad- 
fcctationcm Germanicce originis. " As regards an eager striving after 
a German origin." Compare the explanation of Freund (Worterb., 
s. v.), "in dem Streben, fiir Germanen zu gelt en." We have here 
two specimens of the Latinity of the silver age, namely, the em- 
ployment of circa in the sense of quod attinct ad, and the use of the 
noun adfectatio. (Compare Botticher, Lex. Tac, p. 30, 86.) — A simil- 
itudine et inertia Gallorum separentur. " They can separate them- 
selves from all resemblance unto, as well as from the indolence that 
is characteristic of the Gauls," i. e., can distinguish themselves from 
the Gauls, whom they resemble in person and in indolence. Ob- 
serye the middle force of separentur. 

Vangiones, Triboci, Nemetes. Consult Geographical Index. — Ne 
Ubii quidem, &c. The Ubii were the allies of Caesar against the 
Suevi, and were afterward transported to the left bank of the Rhine 
by Agrippa (B.C. 38). By origine is meant their German origin, 
before they became a colony ; since it was hardly likely that a people 
w r ho had been made a colony of by the Romans, and placed in a post 
of trust, as Tacitus says, ut arcerent, non ut custodirentur, should 
blush for this honor. Some commentators, however, have referred 
origine to Agrippina. (Consult Lipsius, ad loc.) 

Conditoris sui nomine. We have no direct evidence as to who 
founded the colony in question. The town (now Cologne) was 
called Colonia Agrippina, or Agrippinensis, the first of which names 
would mean, " the Colony of Agrippa," and the second, " the Colony 
of Agrippina." (Rasche, Lex. Rei Num., vol. ii., col. 681 ; Orelli, 
Inscript. Lat., 3381.) Now, Agrippa was engaged in this quarter on 
two occasions ; while, on the other hand, Agrippina, the daughter 



104 NOTES ON THE GERMANIA. CHAP. XXVIII., XXIX. 

of Germanicus, and granddaughter of Agrippa, was born in this 
place. It is probable, therefore, that the colony was originally 
founded by Agrippa, and was called Colonia Agrippina merely, until 
Agrippina, after her union with Claudius, sent out her own colony, 
of which Tacitus elsewhere makes mention (Ann., xii., 27), and the 
object of which, in all likelihood, was to strengthen the first. The 
name Colonia Agrippinensis began after this, it would seem, to be 
employed in common with the Other. (Compare Plin. ,H.N., iv. ,17.) 
Experimento fidei. " From trial (having been made) of their fidel- 
ity," i. e., in consequence of their tried fidelity. Observe that ex- 
perimento is here the ablative. — Ut arcerent, non ut cnstodirentur. 
" To restrain (others), not to be guarded (themselves)," i. e., to keep 
their own countrymen in check, and prevent them from crossing 
over into the Roman territories ; not placed there themselves to 
be watched by the Romans. 



CHAPTER XXIX. 

Batavi. The Batavi were the inhabitants of South Holland and 
some adjacent parts. They occupied the district between the Va- 
halis (Waal) and Mosa (Meuse), above their junction ; and also the 
island formed by the northern arm of the Rhine (or Rhine of Leyden), 
the Vahalis and Mosa after their junction, and the ocean, which 
island now constitutes part of South Holland. They seem, also, 
from the language of the text, to have occupied a small tract on the 
banks of the Rhine, not included in the insula Batavorum, as it is 
called by Caesar (B. G., iv., 10). Compare, on this whole subject, 
the account given by Tacitus (Hist., iv., 12), and also Geographical 
Index. 

Ripa. When ripa is used alone, in speaking of the Rhine, it 
generally means, as in the present instance, the left bank of the 
stream.— Seditions domestica. Compare Hist., iv., 12. The time 
when this happened is not given. Caesar found them already es- 
tablished in their new seats. — In quibus pars Romani imperii Jierent. 
This marks, of course, the consequence, not the intent. 

Contemnuntur. As referring to the degradation connected with 
the payment of tribute. — Nee publicanus adterit. "Nor does any 
farmer of the revenue oppress them." The publicani, or farmers of 
the revenue, were principally members of the equestrian order. 
They did not themselves, however, take any part in the actual levy- 
ing or collecting of the taxes in the provinces ; this part of the 
business was performed by an inferior class of men. These in- 



NOTES ON THE GERMANIA. CHAP. XXIX. 105 

ferior officers were notorious for their insolence and oppression, 
and it is to such that allusion is made in the present instance. — 
Adterit. A peculiarly appropriate term. The verb adterere denotes, 
properly, " to wear away by dint of rubbing," and is here very fitly 
applied to the waste of private substance occasioned by repeated 
and ruinous exactions. 

Bellis reservantur. The Batavi were styled Friends and Brothers 
of the Roman People, as the following inscription in Junius Batav., 
p. 34, indicates : " Gens Batavorum Amid et Fratres Romani Imperii ;" 
and also the following in Grater, fol. 72, N. 9 : " Civ. Batavi Fratres 
et Amid P. R." 

Mattiacorum gens. The Mattiaci, like the Batavi, probably a 
branch of the Catti, dwelt on the right bank of the Rhine, in Wet- 
tcrau and Hesse Darmstadt, the tract possessed by the Ubii before 
they crossed the Rhine, between the Mcenus (Main) and Logana 
(Lahn). (Consult Geographical Index.) — Ultra Rhenum. The 
Rhine was always regarded as the natural line of division between 
the Roman and German sway. — Ita sedc jinibusque in sua ripa, &c. 
" Thus, as regards settlement and borders, they live on their own 
bank (of the stream) ; in sentiment and attachment they act with 
us." Observe the zeugma in agunt. There is nothing synonymous 
here, as some suppose, in mcnte and animo. By mens is here meant 
cogitatio ; by animus, on the other hand, voluntas. 

Nisi quod ipso adhuc, &c. " Except that, from the very nature of 
their soil and climate, they still retain more spirit." They are more 
warlike than the Batavi, in consequence of their occupying a mount- 
ainous country, and living under a more rigorous climate. Botti- 
cher gives adhuc in this passage the meaning of insuper or prceterea 
(Lex. Tacit., p. 33) ; but it is better to regard it, with Gruber, as a 
particle of time. 

Decumates agros. " The tithe-lands." This is not a proper name 
belonging to any tribe or place ; but was applied to lands conquered 
by the Romans, in which, for the sake of security, that no hostile 
tribes might dwell close to their borders, they allowed Gauls or 
Roman soldiers to settle, who were charged with the payment of 
a tithe to the Romans. The Romans very commonly exacted a 
tithe from those who occupied the public lands : the greater part of 
Sicily was taxed in this way. For more particulars respecting the 
Decumates Agri, consult Geographical Index. 

Dubice possessionis. At first these lands lay beyond the Roman 
boundary, and were unprotected against the incursions of the hostile 
Germans. — Limite acto, &c. u A boundary line being run, and for- 

E2 



106 NOTES ON THE GERMANIA. CHAP. XXX. 

tified posts being pushed forward, they are (now) regarded as a nook 
of the empire, and a part of the (Roman) province (in this quarter).'' 
The province referred to was that of Germania Cisrhenana, or of 
Raetia. 



CHAPTER XXX. 

Ultra hos. Tacitus means, beyond the tribes already mentioned 
as dwelling on or near the Rhine ; not those occupying the Decu- 
mates agri. — Catti initium sedis, &c. " The Catti make the first 
rude beginning of their settlements from the Hercynian Forest." 
Mannert refers this to a chain of the Harz Mountains, running north 
from the Main for a considerable distance. (Geogr., vol. iii., p. 183.) 
Observe the peculiar force of the expression initium inchoant, which 
is by no means pleonastic, as many suppose. The verb inchoate 
strictly refers to the first sketch or rude outline of any work, or to 
the first rude commencement of any thing, and is here peculiarly 
apposite. (Compare Cic, de Or., i., 2, 5 : " Qua adolescentulis nobis 
ex commentariolis nosttis inchoata ac rudia exciderunt") The territory 
of the Catti comprehended that of the modern Hessians, Fulda, the 
earldoms of Hanau and Isenburg, so much of Franconia as lies north 
of the Main, to the mouth of the Saale, part of Nassau, and the east- 
ern portion of the Duchy of Westphalia. (Consult Geographical 
Index.) 

Effusis. " Level." — In quas Germania patescit. " Into which 
Germany spreads itself." — Durant siquidem colles, &c. " Since hills 
continue on (here) in a long range, and (then) gradually become 
scattered." Observe the beautiful figure in durant, and compare 
the remarks of Bdtticher, Lex. Tac, p. 165. Passow, Hess, Dilthey, 
and others place a colon after durant, thus connecting it with what 
piecedes, and making civitates its subject, " as the other states en- 
dure to dwell in." In the succeeding clause they read siquidem 
colles paullatim rarescunt. This, however, is far inferior. — Siquidem. 
The position of this word, as the second in the sentence, is in ac- 
cordance with the habit of transposition in which Tacitus so fre- 
quently indulges. (Compare Wernike, de Elocutione Taciti ; and 
Gerlach, ad loc.) The proper place of siquidem would be the first in 
the sentence. 

Et Cattos suos, &c. " And the Hercynian Forest both escorts and 
sets down its own Catti." A bold and lively image. When a mag- 
istrate left Rome to take command of a province, it was usual for 
his friends to escort him part of the way : the term used to express 



NOTES ON THE GERMANIA. CHAP. XXX. 107 

this was prosequi. So, in the present case, the settlements of the 
Catti lie along a continuous range of hills, until the ridge sinks down 
and the chain is broken. It then bends to the east and leaves the 
Catti. In the bold and vigorous language of Tacitus, the hills are 
said to escort the Catti, and to set them down at length in the lower 
grounds, when the ridge sinks and the hills turn away. Observe, 
moreover, the peculiar and striking beauty of the possessive suos, 
as denoting intimate companionship. 

Duriora corpora, &c. " Hardier frames (than ordinary), compact 
limbs." — Vt inter Germanos. " As far as (we may expect this) 
among Germans." More freely, " considering they are Germans." 
The Germans were regarded by the Romans as generally deficient 
in the qualities to which Tacitus here alludes. The Romans, how- 
ever, mistook mere want of culture for inferiority of intellect. Com- 
pare the remarks of Luden, Gesch. der Deutschen, i., p. 147. 

Prceponere electos. "To place over themselves chosen leaders." 
The Catti choose able leaders to command their armies when going 
forth to war ; whereas, among the other Germans, that one becomes 
a leader who is conspicuous for valor among the foremost combat- 
ants. (Compare ch. vii.) The infinitive in this clause and in those 
that follow is very abrupt, but at the same time very characteristic 
of Tacitus. It is not, of course, the historical infinitive, since the 
present would be required here, not the imperfect. Neither is there 
an ellipsis of solent, as Jacobs supposes. The infinitives in question 
depend, in fact, on what immediately precedes, each clause being 
epexegetical of multum rationis ac sollertice. 

Audire. " To obey." — Nosse. " To keep." — Intelligere occasio- 
nes. " To know how to avail themselves of fitting opportunities." 
(Compare Agric, 14, 18, 27.)— Differre impetus. "To restrain im- 
petuous movements." The other Germans were wont to rush 
rashly on the foe ; the Catti, on the contrary, acted with circum- 
spection and judgment, and delayed an attack wherever such delay 
seemed to promise good results. — Disponere diem, vail are noctem. 
" To assign to each part of the day its proper duty, to fortify them- 
selves during the night." Literally, " to distribute the day, to en- 
trench the night." Grammarians rank this form of expression 
under the Prosopopoeia of Time. (Compare the remarks of Botti- 
cher, p. lv.) 

Nee nisi Romance discipline, concessum. In the age of Tacitus, the 
wars carried on by the Romans were only against undisciplined 
barbarians ; so that order and discipline might, with some reason, 
be claimed as peculiar to the Romans. (Dilthey, ad loc.) We have 



108 NOTES ON THE GERMANIA. CHAP. XXX., XXXT. 

given here Romana, with Orelli, Walch, Selling, and others. The 
common reading is nee nisi ratione disciplines concession, " nor con- 
ceded save by the steady operation of discipline," i. e., and only a 
consequence of discipline. 

Ferramenlis. " With iron tools," i. e., axes, spades, pickaxes, &c. 
— Copiis. "Provisions." — Alios ad pr odium ire videas. "You may 
see others going forth merely to a single battle." Other nations of 
the Germans think only of the first battle ; the Catti, on the con- 
trary, adopt a regular plan of operations for an entire campaign, and 
hence excursions and skirmishes {fortuitm pugnce) are of rare oc- 
currence among them. 

Cito cedere. "Quickly to lose one." Literally, " quickly to re- 
tire (from one)." This is well exemplified by the case of the an- 
cient Parthians and modern Cossacks. — Velocitas juxta formidinem, 
&c. " Rapid movements border upon fear, deliberate ones are more 
akin to steady valor." The meaning of the whole passage is this : 
the strength of the Catti consisting in infantry, they can not engage 
to any great extent in equestrian encounters, &c, but then there is 
an advantage connected with such a state of things, since eques- 
trian conflicts are uncertain, and marked by sudden changes of 
fortune, whereas the steady movements of infantry are more gen- 
erally crowned with lasting success. 



CHAPTER XXXI. 

Et aliis Germanorum populis, &c. "What among other tribes of 
the Germans is usually done through rare and individual daring, 
among the Catti has become a matter of common consent," i. e., 
has become a regular and received custom. Literally, " through 
rare and private daring on the part of each individual." — Vertit. 
For conversum est. Many transitive verbs, especially such as ex- 
press motion, are used either intransitively or for passives. The 
common explanation of this has been to supply the personal pronoun 
or some substantive ; hut this is both unfounded and unnecessary. 
(Consult Sanct. Minerv., iii., 2, 1 ; Kuhner, G. G., § 360, ed J elf ; 
Bentley, ad Horat., Carm., iv., 10, 5.) 

Votivum obligatumque virtuti. " The result of a vow, and by 
which they have bound themselves to a life of daring." — Revclant 
frontem. "They unveil the countenance," i. e., by cutting their 
hair and shaving their beard. This custom stands in singular op- 
position to the ordinary usage among the Germans of regarding 



NOTES ON THE GERMANIA. CHAP. XXXI., XXXII. 109 

long hair as a badge of valor and honorable distinction, and the loss 
of it as the reverse. (Compare Dilthey, ad loc.) — Pretia nascendi ret- 
tulisse. "Have paid the debt of their birth," i. e., the debt they 
owed to their country and parents for having been born. 

Squalor. " Their squalid disguise." — Fortissimus quisque ferreum, 
&c. It was very common in the middle ages for those who were 
under a vow of penance to wear an iron ring till they had fulfilled 
it. — Ignominiosum id genti. " It is a mark of ignominy with that na- 
tion." Literally, " unto the nation." The iron ring seems to have 
been a badge of slavery. Various attempts have been made to alter 
the text here, but, if we make the clause parenthetical, every diffi- 
culty disappears. — Plurimis Cattorum, &c. " This condition of 
visage possesses lasting charms for very many of the Catti," i. e., 
they retain this appearance even after they have slain an enemy, as 
though they were bound by a vow from which they could only be 
released by death. — Jamque canent insignes. " And at last they 
grow hoary under the mark." 

Hac prima semper acies visu torva. " These always form the front 
line, stern of aspect." We have adopted torva here, with the Bipont 
editor, Oberlin, Bekker, and others. The ordinary reading is nova, 
which is inconsistent with what is given in the next sentence as 
the reason ; and, therefore, some editors, who retain nova, think that 
for nam we should read quamquam, w T hich would be written in the 
MSS. q'q'm, from which, according to them, nam may have arisen. 
This, however, would be a desperate expedient. The change of 
nova to torva is much neater, and is in full accordance, also, with the 
vultu mitiore of the subsequent sentence. — Donee exsanguis senectus, 
<&c. " Until exhausted old age renders them unequal to so rigorous 
a career of valor." 



CHAPTER XXXII. 

Certum jam alveo. "Now settled in its channel." Literally, 
" now certain (i. c, to be relied upon) in what relates to the bed of 
the river." The reference is to the quarter where the stream is 
now confined within fixed limits, and does not form so many 
branches and lakes as in the country of the Batavi. — Usipii ac 
Tencteri. These two tribes generally go together in geography and 
history. They frequently changed their settlements. (Consult 
Geographical Index.) — Super solitum bellorum decus. "In addition 
to the warlike reputation usual (with the German race)." Supply 
ceteris Gcrmanis after solitum. — Equestris disciplines arte prcecellunt. 



110 NOTES ON THE GERMANIA. CHAP. XXXII., XXXIII. 

Compare the account given by Caesar of the superiority of the Gei- 
man cavalry. (B. G., iv., 2, 11, 12, 16.) 

Sic instituere major es, &c. " Their forefathers thus established, 
posterity imitate, the custom."— Hcec juvenum cemulatio. "This is 
the point of emulation among the youth." — Inter familiam et pe?iates. 
"Along with the household and household gods." By familia is 
here meant the dwelling and all things connected with it, furniture, 
slaves, &c. Compare Weishaupt, ad loc. — Excipit. "Inherits 
(them)." Literally, " receives them," i. e., by inheritance ; so that 
excipit is here equivalent to hcereditate accipit, and there is an ellipsis 
of equos. — Sed prout ferox hello et melior. " But according as he is 
fierce in war, and superior (in this respect to the rest)." There is 
no tautology here, as some suppose. Compare the explanation of 
Walther : " Excipit equos ferox hello inter non feroces : inter feroces 
excipit ferocior sive melior ." 



CHAPTER XXXIII. 

Bructeri Chamavos et Angrivarios. As regards these sev- 
eral tribes, consult Geographical Index. — Occurrehant. "Met the 
view." Supply oculis or euntihus, and compare Columella, ii., 2, 
where the full form is given : " oculis ejus tot paludes, tot etiam campi 
salinarum occurrerent." — Penitus excisis. Tacitus is most probably 
mistaken in asserting that the Bructeri were entirely extirpated ; 
for we find the Roman commander, Spurinna, engaged with them in 
the reign of Trajan ; and in later times they appear as a powerful 
people among the Franks. Their name was finally lost when they 
were overpowered by the Saxons. It appears for the last time in 
a letter of Pope Gregory III., about the year 720, when they are 
called Borthari. 

Nam ne spectaculo quidem, &c. " For they did not begrudge us 
even in the matter of allowing us to be spectators of a battle." Ob- 
serve that spectaculo is here in the ablative, and that invidere gov- 
erns a dative of the person. If the meaning had been, " for they 
did not begrudge us even the spectacle of a battle," the accusative, 
spectaculum, would have been employed. — Oblectationi oculisque. 
"For our entertainment, and the mere pleasure of the spectacle." 
Not equivalent merely to oblectationi oculorum, by a so-called hen- 
diadys, but a much stronger form of expression. (Compare the re- 
marks of Botticher, p. xlvi.) The conflict alluded to in the text is 
supposed to have taken place near the Canal of Drusus (Fossa Dru- 
siana), from which quarter the Roman garrison could be spectators 



NOTES ON THE GERMANIA. CHAP. XXXIII., XXXIV. Ill 

of it, and the time to have been the first year of the reign of Trajan. 
(Brotier, ad loc.) 

Maneat, quceso, duretque, &c. " May, I entreat, if not an affection 
for us, yet at least a feeling of animosity against each other remain 
and continue strongly seated in the nations," i. e., remain and long 
continue to remain. Observe that quceso has properly an ellipsis of 
deos, and compare T event. Andr., iii., 2, 7. Observe, moreover, that 
duret rises in strength above maneat. — Urgentibus imperii fatis. 
" While the fate of the empire is (thus) urgent," i. e., in the present 
critical condition of the empire. As this treatise was written in 
the reign of Trajan, when the affairs of the Romans appeared un- 
usually prosperous, some critics have imagined that Tacitus wrote 
vigentibus, "flourishing," instead of urgentibus. But it is sufficiently 
evident, from other passages, that the causes which were operating 
gradually, but surely, to the destruction of the Roman Empire, did 
not escape the penetration of Tacitus, even when disguised by the 
most flattering appearances. The common reading, therefore, must 
stand. (Aikin, ad loc.) — Hostium. " On the part of our foes." 



CHAPTER XXXIV. 

A tergo cludunt. " Shut in from behind," i. e., on the east. — Dul- 
gibini. This tribe belonged to the race of the Cherusci, and were 
apparently driven eastward by the same irruption of the Cauci as 
that which expelled the Angrivarii. (Consult Geographical Index.) 
— Chasuari. These were also a tribe of the Cherusci, and were 
conquered by Tiberius and Germanicus. (Consult Geographical 
Index.) — AlicEque gentes. The Ansibarii, Tubantes, Turonii, Ner- 
tereani, Danduti, Marvingi, &c. (Dilthey, ad loc.) Of these na- 
tions little, if any thing, is known. The last four are named by 
Ptolemy alone. — Frisii. The Frisii majores dwelt in what is now 
West Friesland and Groningen ; the Frisii minores in Oberyssel, 
Gelders, Utrecht, and the greater part of the province of Holland. 
(Consult Geographical Index.) 

Rheno prcetexuntur. "Are bordered in front by the Rhine," i. e.> 
the settlements of both stretch along the Rhine. — Immensos lacus. 
Anciently this country was covered by large lakes, which were made 
still larger by frequent inundations of the sea. Since the inunda- 
tion, however, of 1569, which .submerged almost all Friesland, the 
Zuydcr Zee has taken the place of most of them. — Romanis classibus 
navigatos. (Compare Ann., i., 70 ; ii., 5.) — Ipsum quin etiam Ocea- 
nian, &c. " Nay, we have even explored the ocean in that quarter." 



112 NOTES ON THE GERMANIA. CHAP. XXXIV., XXXV. 

With ilia, supply regione. Drusus, Tiberius, and Germanicus ex- 
plored this sea. Drusus is said to have penetrated also into the 
Sinus Dollarius, at the mouth of the Amisia, or Ems. Tiberius nav- 
igated the Albis, or Elbe. The shipwreck of the fleet of Germanicus 
proved likewise a source of discovery, and, according to Mannert 
{Geogr., iii., p. 91), pointed out to navigators the way to the Baltic. 
On the expedition of Drusus in Northern Germany, consult the Me- 
moir of Wilhelm, in Kruse's Deutsche Altcrth., ii., 1. 

Herculis columnas. Besides the well-known Pillars of Hercules 
at the Straits of Gibraltar, the ancient writers speak of similar ones 
in the north ; a tradition which arose, in all probability, from the ex- 
istence of similar natural features in that quarter. Where, how- 
ever, the northern promontories were that received this name has 
never been satisfactorily ascertained. It is generally supposed, 
however, that the legend points to the Sound, between Denmark and 
Sweden. (Compare Dilthey, ad loc, and Ukert, Geogr., i., p. 216.)— 
Sive adiit Hercules. On the legend of the wanderings of Hercules 
in the ocean, consult Pherecyd., ap. Schol. ad Apollon. Rhod., iv., 
1396, and Steph. Byz., s. v. Qpa/cn. 

Druso Germanico. Mentioned in a preceding note by the name 
of Drusus merely, which is his more usual appellation. He was 
the brother of Tiberius, and step-son of Augustus. The younger 
Drusus was the son of Tiberius. — Mox nemo tentamt. Editors gen- 
erally interpret this as meaning that no one after Drusus ventured 
upon this se^, and, accordingly, are puzzled to reconcile this with 
what Tacitus says in his Annals (ii., 6, 23, 24). This arises from 
misunderstanding the meaning of mox, which, so far from signify- 
ing that no one sailed on this sea after Drusus, implies that some 
one did so, but that the expeditions of the Romans in this quarter 
were soon abandoned. The other sense would require postea. 

Sanctiusque ac reverentius, &c. " And it seemed more pious and 
reverential to entertain a belief concerning the actions of the gods, 
than to seek to become actually acquainted with them," i. e., to 
believe in the present instance that Hercules actually visited the 
north, and that pillars erected by him do really exist in this quarter, 
than to seek to ascertain their precise position. 



CHAPTER XXXV. 

Novimus. " We have examined." — Ingenti flexu. This bend is 
formed by the Cimbric Chersonese, or modern Jutland, which 
Tacitus conceived to be rather curved and round than angular and 



NOTES ON THE GERMANIA. CHAP. XXXV., XXXVI. 113 

pointed. — Caucorum gens. The Cauci dwelt along the ocean, from 
the Amisia (Ems) to the Albis (Elbe), and reached southward some- 
what below what is now East Friesland, Oldenburg, and Bremen, 
although along the Visurgis (Weser) these boundaries often changed. 
Their name is still preserved in that of their harbor, Cuxhaven. 
(Consult Geographical Index.) — Lateribus obtenditur. " Is stretched 
along the flanks," i. e., stretches so far as to border upon. — Donee 
in Cattos usque sinuetur. " Until it bends round even unto the 
Catti," i. e., until it bends around so far as to meet the territories 
of the Catti. 

) Sed et implent. Ptolemy (ii., 11) mentions, as their towns, $a- 
(jipavov (Brema or Varel), Aevqava (Luneberg, Lauenberg, Buxtehuda, 
or Lubbethene), TeKE?ua (Oldenbrook, Elsfleth, or Zetel), TovXldpovpdov 
( Verda, or Dohlbergen), Ziarovrdvda ( Utende), and Tevdepiov (Detern). 

Sine cupiditate, sine impotentia. "Without ambition, without un- 
governed desires." Observe that impotentia is here equivalent to 
impotentia sui, and denotes a want of command over one's passions. 
— JSullaprovocant bella. " They provoke no wars." (Compare Hist , 
ii., 61 ; Agric, 42.) — Idque prcecipuum virtutis, &c. " And this fact 
is a principal proof of their valor and prowess, that they do not ac- 
quire their superiority by any acts of injustice." Observe that ut 
superiores agant is an expression borrowed from the language of the 
stage, in which agere aliqucm is the same as partes alicujus agere, 
" to represent or exhibit any character," &c. 

Ac, si res poscat, exercilus. Some editors read ac, si res poscat 
exercitus, plurimum virorum, &c. But this is contrary to the usage 
of Tacitus, who always employs the formula si res poscat abso- 
lutely, and without any case attached to show what is required or 
demanded. — Et quiescentibus eadem fama. "And they enjoy the 
same renown even in inaction," i. e., their warlike reputation is not 
at all injured by their pacific spirit. 



CHAPTER XXXYI. 

Cherusci. The tribe of the Cherusci must be carefully distin- 
guished from the league of the Cherusci. The latter included the 
Cherusci, Dulgibini, Ansibarii, Chasuari, Chamavi, Tubantes, and 
Marsi. (Consult Geographical Index.) — Nimiam ac marcentem diu 
■pacem, &c. " Long cherished, from their being unattacked by any 
foe, a too lasting and enfeebling state of repose."— Impotentes. 
Equivalent to impotentes sui. (Compare note on impotentia in the 
preceding chapter.) — Ubi manu agitur, &c. "When matters are 



114 NOTES ON THE GERMANIA. CHAP. XXXVI., XXXVII. 

decided by the sword, moderation and mildness are terms belonging 
to the victor," i. e., moderation and mildness are ascribed, not to 
the weak and inactive, but to those who possess the power of in- 
juring their neighbors without abusing it. 

Boni cequique Cherusci. Some derive the name from an old word 
cherusk, meaning "just". (Ruperti, ad loc.) — Nunc inertes ac stulti 
vocantur. The name here referred to is Thuringi (Thuringer), 
from thoring, " stupid." — Cattis victoribus. Compare Ann., xii., 28 ; 
Dw Cass., lxvii., 5. — Fortuna in sapientiam cessit. " Their good 
fortune has passed for wisdom." The meaning of the whole passage 
is this : The success of the Catti, which was due to their good for- 
tune, has, since they gained the mastery, been placed to the account 
of their wisdom. 

Tracti ruina Cheruscorum. " Were involved in the ruin of the 
Cherusci." Literally, " were dragged down by the ruin of the Che- 
rusci." The earlier editions, and, among more modern ones, those 
of Passow, Hess, and Walch, have tacti instead of tracti, which 
will make the allusion a figurative one to a contagious disease. 
But tracti is a much stronger form of expression. — Fosi. The 
name of this tribe is connected by Leibnitz with that of the River 
Fuse, which flows into the Alter near Zelle. They were annihilated 
by the LangobardL 



CHAPTER XXXVII. 
Eundem Germania sinum. "This same bend of Germany," i. e., 
this same quarter of Germany, which bends, as just stated, to the 
north. The reference is to the ingens flexus mentioned at the be- 
ginning of chapter xxxv.—Cimbri. The Cimbri never dwelt in the 
quarter here assigned them by Tacitus, namely, on the Cimbric 
Chersonese, or modern Jutland. Their real country lay, probably, 
on the northeast side of Germany. (Consult Geographical Index.) 
— Parva nunc civitas. No state of the Cimbri existed here, as we 
have just remarked. Tacitus was misled by some vague report. — 
Utraque ripa castra ac spatia. " Encampments, namely, and lines on 
either bank." Another vague statement, and which has given rise, 
of course, to a great diversity of opinions. Brotier and others re- 
fer utraque ripa to both shores of the Cimbric Chersonese. Cluver 
and Dithmar, on the other hand, suppose that these encampments 
are to be sought for either in Italy, upon the River Athesis (Adige), 
oi in Gallia Narbonensis, near Aquae Sextiae (Aix), where Florus 
(iii., 3) mentions that the Teutones, defeated by Marius, took post 



NOTES ON THE GERMANIA. CHAP. XXXVII. 115 

in a va/ley with a river running through it. According, however, 
to the established usus loquendi, the reference must be either to the 
Rhine or the Danube, most probably the former. It must be borne 
in mind, moreover, that ripa, as here employed, is a very general 
term, and does not limit the meaning to the immediate banks of 
either river. 

Quorum ambitu, &c. " From the compass of which you may now, 
also, estimate the strength and numbers of the nation, and the de- 
gree of credit due to the account of so great an emigration," i. e., 
the account generally given of the vast numbers of the Cimbri that 
poured down upon southern Europe. — Sexcentesimum et quadragesi- 
mum, &c. This date corresponds to B.C. 114, but the more correct 
date is 641 A.U.C., or B.C. 113, in which latter year, not in B.C. 
114, Metellus and Carbo were consuls. (Dilthey, ad loc.) — Audita 
sunt arma. It was in this year that the Cimbri first appeared in No- 
ricum, in the northeast of the Adriatic, and on the banks of the 
Danube. 

Ad alterum imperatoris Trajani, &c. Trajan was five times con- 
sul, the second time (the period here meant) in A.D. 98, in which 
same year.Nerva died, and Trajan ascended the throne. The pres- 
ent tense, here employed by Tacitus, shows that the latter was en- 
gaged in writing this work at the time he speaks of, namely, A.D. 
98. — Conliguntur. "Are comprised." — Tamdiu Gcrmania vincitur. 
"For so long a space of time is Germany getting conquered," i. e., 
during so long a period has Germany withstood the arms of Rome. 
• Medio tarn longi am spatio, &c. "During the interval of so long 
a period." — Non Samnis. "Not the Samnite," i. e., not the nation 
of the Samnites. Observe the synecdoche. The struggle between 
the Samnites and the Romans was a fierce and obstinate one, and 
in the defiles of Caudium (Furca Caudina) a Roman army was com- 
pelled to pass under the yoke. (Liv., ix., 2.) — Pozni. Alluding to 
the disastrous defeats inflicted by Hannibal. — Hispania. "The 
Spains," i. e., the two divisions of Hispania, namely, Tarraconensis 
and Batica. The Iberus formed the boundary between these. Wars 
were carried on in these two provinces by the Romans against the 
Carthaginians, Viriathus, the Numantines, Sertorius, and others. 

Gallia. " The Gauls," i. e., Transalpine and Cisalpine Gaul. — 
Parthi. Alluding particularly to the overthrow of Crassus, and the 
check received by Marc Antony. — Sapius admonuere. " Have more 
frequently reminded us (that we are not invincible)." We have 
here an ellipsis more in thought than in word. Compare the ex- 
planation of Longolius, "admonuere, scil. nos cladibus, nos vinci 



116 NOTES ON THE GERMANIA. CHAP. XXXVII. 

posse." — Quippe regno Arsacis, &c. "No doubt because the im- 
patience of control which characterizes the Germans is more vigor- 
ous than the despotism of Arsaces," i. e., proves a greater stimulus 
to exertion. Observe that regno Arsacis is the same as regno Par- 
thico, the monarchs of Parthia being in the time of Tacitus of the 
dynasty of the Arsacidse, so called from Arsaces, the founder of the 
empire. 

Quid enim aliud, &c. "For what else has the East, humbled 
beneath a Ventidius, Pacorus himself also having been lost, to 
boast of against us, save the slaughter of Crassus?" Crassus was 
defeated and slain by the Parthians, B.C. 53. After the defeat of P. 
Decidius Saxa, lieutenant of Syria, by the Parthians, and the seiz- 
ure of Syria by Pacorus, son of King Orodes, P. Ventidius Bassus, 
having been sent thither by Marc Antony, slew Pacorus, and com- 
pletely restored the Roman affairs. Ventidius himself, however, 
was a man of very inferior ability, and of very low origin, having 
been originally a mule-driver ; and he had risen to the command of 
the Roman armies in this quarter solely through the favor of An- 
tony, whom he joined with three legions after the battle of Mutina. 
Hence the peculiar force of dejectus infra, as implying that the once 
haughty empire of the Parthians had been brought so low as to be 
compelled to yield to the arms of a Ventidius. (Dilthey, ad loc.) 

At Germani Carbone, &c. Cn. Papirius Carbo was defeated by 
the Cimbri at Noreia, B.C. 113 {Liv., Ep., 63); L. Cassius Longi- 
nus (B.C. 107) was sent under the yoke and slain by the Tigurini, 
who had joined themselves to the Cimbri. (Cces., B. G., i., 7, 12 ; 
Veil. Paterc, h\, 12) ; M. Aurelius Scaurus, the same year, was de- 
feated and taken prisoner by the Cimbri, and put to death by Boi- 
orix, a chief, or, as Livy styles him, a furious youth (ferox juve- 
nis). He had excited the ire of the barbarians by advising them 
not to enter Italy, assuring them that the Romans were invincible. 
{Liv., Ep., 67; Veil. Paterc., ii., 12.) Q. Servilius Csepio and Cn. 
Manlius (B.C. 105), through their rashness and dissensions, suffered 
a severe defeat from the Cimbri, near Tolosa. (Liv., Ep., 67 ; Veil. 
Paterc., ii., 12; Vol. Max., iv., 7; Plut., Mar., ii.) — Cnceo quoque 
Manlio. All the old MSS. and editions have M. quoque Manlio. Cn. 
and M. are frequently confounded in the MSS. In the present in- 
stance, however, the true reading is Cnao, since it had been decreed 
after the death of M. Manlius Capitolinus, who was accused by the 
patrician party of aiming at royal power, that no one of this family 
should bear the name of Marcus. (Liv., vi., 20 ; Cic, Phil., i., 13.) 
Varum. The reference is to P. Quintilius Varus, who was de- 



NOTES ON THE GERMANIA. CHAP. XXXVII. 117 

feated by the Germans under Arminius, in the upper valley of the 
Lippe, then covered with the deep wood of the Saltus Teutoburgien- 
sis, or Teutoburger Wald. Varus fell on his own sword ; those who 
were taken alive were sacrificed at altars in the forest to the gods 
of the country ; and the legions were cut to pieces, with the excep- 
tion of a very small body, who broke through the Germans and 
made their way to the Rhine. (Consult Ann., i., 59, seqq. ; and ii., 
9, seqq.) By this defeat the Roman conquests east of the Rhine 
w T ere lost. — Ccesari. Augustus Caesar is meant. The consterna- 
tion felt at Rome, when the news of this defeat reached the capital, 
is well known. (Compare Suet., Aug., 23.) 

Impune. " Without loss." — Caius Marius in Italia. The allusion 
is to the famous defeat of the Cimbri, in the Raudii Campi, near 
Vercellae, and westward of Mediolanum, by the combined forces of 
Marius and Catulus. Marius had previously defeated the Teutones 
and Ambrones at Aquae Sextiae (Aix), in Gaul. — Divus Julius in Gal- 
lia. For the campaigns of Julius Caesar against the Germans, con- 
sult Cces., B. G., i., 32, seqq. ; ii., 1, seqq. ; iv., 1, seqq. ; vi., 9, seqq. 
— Drusus ac Nero et Germanicus. By Drusus is here meant Drusus 
Germanicus, the brother of Tiberius, and by Nero, Tiberius himself, 
whose full name was Claudius Tiberius Nero Drusus. Germanicus 
was the son of Drusus, and nephew of Tiberius. Observe the change 
of the conjunction ac in this sentence, because Drusus and Nero 
were more on an equality with one another as brothers, than with 
Germanicus. — In suis sedibus. For an account of the expedition of 
Drusus, &c, consult Geographical Index, s. v. Germani. 

Mox. A.D. 39. — Caii Casaris. Caligula is meant, whose his- 
torical name was Caius Caesar, or, more fully, Caius Julius Caesar 
Germanicus. — In ludibrium versa. " Terminated in ridicule." He 
marched with a large army (A.D. 39) against the Germans, and, 
when he came to the Rhine, he ordered some of the Germans who 
served in his body-guard to cross the river and hide themselves. He 
then caused messengers to bring him information that the enemy 
was there. When this was done, he suddenly sprang up from his 
meal, and with a detachment of his guards hurried across the river, 
cut down some trees, and in the evening returned with the Germans, 
whom he had found in their hiding-place, and whom he treated as 
prisoners of war. (Compare Suet., Calig., 45, seqq. ; Bio Cass., lix., 
25.) 

Inde otium. During the reigns of Claudius and Nero. But com- 
pare Ann., xi., 18, seqq. ; xii., 27, seqq. ; and Suet., Claud., 24. — 
Civilium armorum. The wars carried on by Galba, Otho, Vitellius, 



118 NOTES ON THE GERMANIA. CHAP. XXXVII., XXXVIII. 

and Vespasian. — Expugnatis legionum kibernis. This was done in 
A.D. 69, by the Batavi under Claudius Civilis. {Hist., iv., 12, seqq. ; 
v., 20.) — Etiam Gallias adfectavere. " They even aimed at the pos- 
session of the Gauls." — Proximis his temporibus. " In these latter 
times," i. e., not Only in the reign of Domitian, but also in the 
reigns of Nerva, Trajan, and Hadrian. 

Triumphati magis quam victi sunt. (Compare Agric, 39 ; Pers., 
vi., 43, seqq. ; Suet., Calig., 47.) — The cognomen of Germanicus and 
the honor of a triumph were frequently, out of flattery, conferred 
on the emperors, on their sons and favorites ; sometimes, as in the 
case of Caligula and Domitian, upon men who had never even seen 
the enemy (und' ecopaKuc nov TroXejULov. Dio Cass., lxvii., 4). Com- 
pare Dilthey, ad loc. 



CHAPTER XXXVIII. 

Suevis. According to Tacitus, the Suevi possessed all the land 
from the banks of the Danube northward to the Baltic Sea, between 
the Elbe and the Vistula. Caesar, on the other hand, makes their 
possessions extend to the Rhine, along the north bank of the Mcenus. 
The reason of this was probably owing to the fact that, on the north 
side of the Mcenus, an army of Suevi had come to the aid of Ario- 
vistus, which afterward retired. (Cces., B. G., i., 37, 54; iv., 1, 
seqq.) The Catti were the tribe unto which Caesar gave the name 
of Suevi. (Consult Geographical Index.) — Propriis adhuc nationi- 
bus, &c. " Distinguished from one another up to the present time 
by particular nations and names." The different nations into which 
the Suevi were divided are enumerated from chapter xxxix. toxlv., 
both inclusive. — In commune. "In common." An expression be- 
• longing to the silver age of Latinity. 

Insigne gentis, &c. "It is a badge of the race to turn back the 
hair over the head, and to fasten it up in a knot," i. e , not to leave 
the hair hanging down straight, but to turn or comb it back, &c. 
The knot into which the hair was formed was not on the top, but at 
the back part of the head. — Substringere. Properly, " to bind below 
or under," and hence, "tO'bind from below," or, in other words, 
" to bind or tie up." It is a poetic term, and belongs to the silver 
age of Latinity. — A ceteris Germanis. Other ancient writers, how- 
ever, make this mode of wearing the hair a badge of the Germans in 
general. Dilthey compares Seneca, de Ira, iii., 26, and Juvenal, xiii., 
164. — Separantur. "Are distinguished." — A servis. The slaves 
wore the hair cut close and short, as was the custom afterward 



NOTES ON THE GERMANIA. CHAP. XXXVIII., XXXIX. 119 

with this class of persons among the Franks. Long hair was the 
hadge of a freeman. (Compare Greg. Turon., iii., 8 ; Leg. Bur- 
gu?id.y vi., 4; Grimm, Deutsche Rechtsalt., p. 284.) 

Apud Suevos usque ad canitiem, &c. " Among the Suevi they put 
back their bristly locks even up to the time of hoary hairs, and fre- 
quently bind them into a knot on the very crown." Literally, " they 
follow back," an expression which has given rise to a great diver- 
sity of opinion, but which appears to mean nothing more than a con- 
stant and pains-taking habit of putting back both the individual and 
collected hairs. Consult Walther, ad loc, where various interpre- 
tations are given, and compare Bdtticher, Lex. Tac., s. v. sequi. — 
Ipso solo vertice. By solo vertice is meant "the crown alone," an 
expression strengthened by the term ipso, and to be compared with 
the Greek avrbc fiovog. Observe, moreover, that the old men wear 
this knot of hair on the crown, the others at the back of the head. 

Ea cura forma, sed innoxia. " Such is their attention to personal 
appearance, though a harmless one," i. e., though not springing from 
the same corrupt motives as among the Romans. A less forci- 
ble reading is innoxice. — In altitudinem quamdam et terror em, &c. 
" Decked'in this way, when about to proceed to wars, to make them- 
selves appear taller, and thus strike terror, they are adorned, as 
it were, for the eyes of their foes," i. e., to conquer by the very 
view. Compare chapter xliii., as cited by Dilthey, "nam primi in 
omnibus praliis oculi vincuntur." 



CHAPTER XXXIX. 

Vetustissimos. Earlier writers more frequently employ vetustus 
in an unfavorable sense, as in Cic., Brut., 21, "sed multo tamcn ve- 
tustior et horridior Me." Tacitus, however, uses it in almost the 
same signification as veins. (Bdtticher, Lex. Tac, p. 488.) — Sem- 
nones. They lived between the Elbe and the Oder, inhabiting the 
tract which comprises what is now Mecklenburg and Brandenburg, 
with part of Saxony, Bohemia, Lusatia, Silesia, and Poland. (Con- 
sult Geographical Index.) — Fides antiquitatis, &c. '"The belief 
in their antiquity is strengthened by a religious observance (preva- 
lent among them)." Compare the explanation of Ernesti : " Ut 
credamus gentem antiquam esse, etiam religionis ratio suadet." The 
observance in question was connected with a human sacrifice, a rite 
belonging properly to the earliest times. 

In silvam. This wood is supposed to be the Sonnewald and Fin- 
stcrwald, between the El-ster and the Spree. — Auguriis patrum et 



120 NOTES ON THE GERMAMIA. CHAP. XXXIX., XL. 

prisca formidine sacram. " Consecrated by the auguries of their fore- 
fathers, and the awe-inspiring associations of former times." These 
words form an hexameter line. Compare also Ann., i., 1. — Cceso- 
quepublicehomine. Compare chapter ix. Some commentators sup- 
pose that Tacitus alludes to this in what he says in that same chapter, 
" Pars Suevorum et Isidi sacrificat." — Primordia. The human sac- 
rifice formed the beginning of the rite ; what the remainder of the 
ceremony was our author does not inform us. 

Est et alia luco reverentia. " There is also another mark of rev- 
erential homage paid unto the grove." — Ut minor. " As an inferior 
being." Compare the usage of the Greek language in the case of 
jJTTov, and also Ann., xv., 16 ; Hor., Ep., i., 10, 35. The chain in- 
dicates that the wearer regards himself as the slave of the deity. — 
Et potestatem numinis, &c. " And displaying in his own person the 
power of the divinity," i. e., in the chain that fetters him. 

Evolvuntur. " They roll themselves out." Compare note on 
miscetur, chapter i. — Eo respicit. " Has reference to this," i. e., has 
this import, has this object in view. — Inde. " From this spot," i. e., 
the sacred grove. They believed in the autochthonous origin of 
their race. — Adjicit auctoritatem. Supply superstitioni Mi. Observe 
that adjicere is also used absolutely, meaning "to increase." 

Centum pagis habitant. Caesar (B. G., i., 37; iv., 1) says the 
same of the Suevi. Both writers probably only drew their infor- 
mation from some vague traditions. Mannert contends that Se?n- 
nones was not the name of any particular tribe, but a common one, 
like that of Suevi, and applied to the northern branches of the latter 
people. The name does not occur in history after the reign of An- 
toninus Pius. (Mannert, Geogr., iii., p. 331, seqq.) 

Magnoque corpore. Supply civitatis. Compare Hist., iv., 64 ; 
Liv., xxvi., 16 ; xxxiv., 8. 



CHAPTER XL. 

Contra Langobardos paucitas nobilitat. " On the other hand, their 
paucity of numbers ennobles the Langobardi," i. e., because, though 
few in number, they maintained their ground against the tribes by 
whom they were . surrounded (the Cherusci, Marcomanni, Semno- 
nes, Hermunduri, Cauci, and Marsi), " not by obsequious submis- 
sion" to their neighbors, " but by battles and daring." — Langobardos. 
The Langobardi frequently changed their settlements. At first they 
dwelt in the neighborhood of the Lower Elbe, in the tract now called 
Bardengau, between Magdeburg, Luneburg, and Hamburg, where the 



NOTES ON THE GERMANIA. CHAP, XL. 121 

town of Bardwick stands, and in which quarter they were subdued 
by Tiberius. (Consult Geographical Index.) 

Reudigni deinde et Aviones. The position of these two tribes is 
uncertain. They probably lived near Liineburg. — Angli. The An- 
gli are not mentioned in the expeditions of Drusus and Tiberius, and, 
therefore, probably were at that time on the east of the Elbe. Ptol- 
emy places them on the west, in what is now Magdeburg. Their 
name does not appear separately in history till they joined the Sax- 
ons in the conquest of Britain. Part of them remained behind in 
Denmark, where a tract of land in Schleswig still bears the name 
of Angeln. — Varini et Eudoses, &c. For an account of these tribes, 
consult Geographical Index. 

Hertham. The MSS. and earlier editions have Nerthum, which 
Rhenanus (in 1519) corrected into Herthum, and Oberlin, finally, into 
Hertham. Passow, Hesse, Dilthey, and others, have restored iYer- 
thum ; Hack retains Herthum ; while Bekker, Walch, &c., give the 
preference to Hertham, which appears, on the whole, the better read- 
ing. The word is manifestly the same as the German Erde and 
the English Earth, and its more Germanic form was probably jErth-a f 
with the Latin declension-suffix. Consult Klemm, Germ. Alter- 
thumsk., p. 286, and the work of Barth, " Hertha" Augs., 1818, 8vo. 

Eamque intervenire rebus hominum, &c. "And they think that 
she takes part in the affairs of men, that she visits the different na- 
tions." Literally, " that she bears herself among the nations." Ob- 
serve that populis is here the ablative, not the dative, as some sup- 
pose. 

In insula oceani. There are various opinions respecting the sit- 
uation of this island. It is identified by different writers with Ru- 
gen, Fosettesland, Mona, Heligoland, Fehmern, Bornholm, Poel,&c, 
but Rugen is most probably the island meant. The wood spoken 
of seems to be that of Stubnitz, and the lake the Burgsee. In this 
forest is a lofty rock, to this day called Hertha's rock, with a lake 
at the bottom of it, in shape nearly circular, of immense depth, and 
surrounded by very thick woods. Among the northern nations 
islands were almost invariably selected for the performance of their 
religious rites ; as was the case with Anglesea, the Isle of Man, 
Holy Island, Iona, &c. 

Castum. " Unpolluted." Nearly all the circumstances mentioned 
here concerning the worship of Hertha agree with thos^e practiced 
at the worship of the deity of the earth (called Ceres, Rhea, Ops, 
Demeter, Cybele, or Isis), in Thrace and Phrygia, by the Cabiri, Co- 
rybantes, and Idsei Dactyli. At Pessinus festive days were kept, in 

F 



122 NOTES ON THE GERMANIA. CHAP. XL., XLI. 

which the image of the goddess was drawn in a car by cows through 
the towns of Phrygia. (Virg., JEn., vi., 785.) At every place 
through which she passed sacrifices were offered ; and in Italy, after 
the celebration of her festival, her car was always purified in the 
waters of the River Almo. Similar customs are observed by the 
Brahmins, in India, at the festival of Baghawadi. 

Is adesse penetrali, &c. " He becomes conscious of the entrance 
of the goddess into her secret abiding-place," i. e., into the covered 
vehicle. — Bubus feminis. When nouns denoting animals are of the 
common gender, and the sex of the particular animal is to be stated, 
the term mas or femina is added. (Zumpt, § 42.) — Lceii tunc dies, 
&c. " Then joyous days prevail, then those places are scenes of 
festivity, whatsoever ones she deems worthy of visiting and being 
entertained in." Compare Botticher : "den Hires Besuches sie und 
gastlichen Verweilens wurdigt." 

Non bclla ineunt. A festival called Alia manna frith (i. e. f All- 
manrCs friede), in which they abstained from war, continued to be 
celebrated in Gothland even after the introduction of Christianity. 
— Pax et quies. By no means pleonastic. Pax refers to foreign 
wars ; quies, to internal dissensions. — Templo. " To her sacred 
abode," i. e., to the sacred grove or inclosure. Observe that tern- 
plum is here employed in its primitive meaning, not as implying any 
building, but merely a space marked out or set apart. Compare the 
Greek repevoc, from the same root (teju, cut) with the verb tejuvcj. 

Numen ipsum. "The divinity herself." The goddess was feigned 
to have become polluted by mortal converse, and therefore required 
ablution. The priests of Cybele washed the statue of the goddess ; 
the Germans, unto whom statues were unknown, believed that the 
person of the goddess Hertha herself was thus purified. — Haurit. 
" Swallows up." The slaves were drowned in order that the im- 
posture of the priests might not be divulged. The ostensible reason, 
however, was, that those persons must needs perish who had beheld 
the goddess herself in her real form. — Quod tantum perituri vident. 
" Which they only see who are destined thereafter to perish," i. e., 
who, in consequence of seeing, must immediately thereafter perish. 



CHAPTER XLI. 
In secretiora Germanics. " Into the more remote recesses of Ger- 
many." — Propior. " Nearer (unto us is)." Supply nobis est. — Her- 
mundurorum. The Hermunduri lived about the sources of the Elbe, 
in the north of Bohemia. In the name Hermunduri, Hermun is 



NOTES ON THE GERMANIA. CHAP. XLI., XLII. 123 

probably not an essential part, but merely marks that they belonged 
to the Hermiones. Duri seems to have been their real name, and 
this root appears with a German ending in Thur-ingi. (Consult 
Geographical Index.) — Fida Romanis. Until A.D. 152, when a gen- 
eral conspiracy against the Romans was entered into by the Mar- 
comanni, Narisci, Hermunduri, Quadi, Suevi, Sarmatae, Yandali, La- 
tringes, and Buri. 

Non in ripa. " Not on the bank merely." Supply solum after non. 
The southern bank of the Danube is meant. — Penitus. " Far in 
the interior." — Splcndidissima Rcetice provincice colonia. This is gen- 
erally supposed to be Augusta Vmdelicorum, now Augsburg. — Non 
concupiscentibus. " Not coveting them," i. e., without exciting their 
cupidity. — Notum olim. Through the expeditions of Drusus, Do- 
mitius, and Tiberius. 



CHAPTER XLII. 

Narisci. Called Varisti (OvaputToi) by Ptolemy, and Narisces 
(NapLGKal) by Dio Cassius. They dwelt at the foot of the Fichtelgc- 
birge. (Ptol., ii., 11.) — Marcomanni et Quadi. Consult Geographical 
Index. — Nee Narisci Quadive degencrant. "Nor do the Narisci or 
the Quadi fall short (of them in valor)," i. e., nor are they inferior in 
valor to the Marcomanni. Supply ab Us virlute after degenerant. — 
Eaque Germanice velut frons est, tScc. " And this is, as it were, the 
front of Germany, so far forth as it is formed by the Danube," i. e., 
so far forth as the Danube forms this front, and separates Germany 
in this quarter from the Roman possessions. ~Withperagitur, which 
is here to be taken in the sense of efficilur, supply frons from the pre- 
vious clause. Passow understands iter, which appears much less 
appropriate. Some editors read pergi/ur, others porrigitur, but all 
the MSS. and earlier editions have peragitur. 

Nobile Marobodui et Tudri genus. Of Maroboduus mention will 
be found in the Geographical Index, s. v. Marcomanni. Tuder or 
Tudrus is not mentioned by any other writer but Tacitus, nor by 
the latter elsewhere than in the present passage. Neither are other 
kings of the Marcomanni and Quadi spoken of except by writers of 
a later age ; as Attalus (Aurel. Vict.) and Queen Fritigil (Paulinus) 
among the Marcomanni : and Phurtius, Ariogsesus (Dio Cass., lxxi., 
13), Caiobamarus (Dio Cass., lxxvii., 20), Araharius, Viduarius, 
Agilimundus, and Gabinius (Amm. Marcell). 

Externos reges. As Catualda, Vannius, Vangio, Sido. (Ann., ii., 
62, 63 ; xii., 29, 30.) — Sed vis et potentia, &c. Partly on account 



124 NOTES ON THE GERMANIA. CHAP. XLH., XLIII. 

of the support afforded them by the Romans against the different 
factions of their kingdoms ; partly because some of them owed their 
royalty to the Romans. — Scepius pecunia. In point of fact, however, 
the Romans themselves were sometimes compelled to pay tribute 
to these princes, as to Decebalus, the King of the Daci, and his allies 
the Marcomanni and Quad i. (Dio Cass. ,\xYii., 7 ; lxviii., 9.) Com- 
pare chap, xv., &c. 



CHAPTER XLIII. 

Retro. " Farther back," i. e., farther from the Danube, and more 
in the interior. — Marsigni, Gothini, &c. Consult Geographical In- 
dex. — Terga cludunt. " They shut in the rear." — Referunt. " Re- 
semble." So robora parentum liberi referunt (c. 20). — Osos Panno- 
nica lingua. Compare notes on chapter xxviii. — Sarmata. By the 
Sarmatae here are probably meant the Iazyges Metanastae, who dwelt 
in the neighborhood of the Quadi, or else the Sidones. 

Gothini, quo magis pudeat, &c. Because the iron mines in their 
country ought to furnish them with arms, with which to assert their 
freedom. The Greeks and Romans generally employed slaves to 
work in the mines. — Pauca campestrium. " A small extent (only) 
of level country." Observe the poetical form of expression. The 
more ordinary one would be pauca campestria loca. 

Continuum montium jugum. Tacitus does not give us the name 
of this chain of mountains, but from his description it appears to be 
identical with the Asciburgian range of Ptolemy, and the modern 
Riesengebirge. — Lygiorum nomen. " The nation of the Lygii." 
Literally, "the name of the Lygii," i. e., the tribes included under 
the name. (Consult Geographical Index.) — Arios, Helveconas, &c. 
The positions of these subdivisions are not determined with accu- 
racy. For remarks concerning them, consult Geographical Index, 
s. v. Arii. — Muliebri ornatu. The priest was probably attired in a 
flowing robe, which, contrasting as it did with the closely-fitting 
attire of the Germans in general, was mistaken for a female dress. 

Sed deos, interpretatione Romana, &c. " But they say that the 
gods (worshiped there) are, according to Roman interpretation, 
Castor and Pollux," i. e. writers and travelers inform us, that the 
gods worshiped in this sacred grove resemble in their attributes, 
and are the same with the Roman deities Castor and Pollux. — Ea 
vis numini, &c. " This is the power assigned unto their godhead ; 
their name is Alci ;" i. e., such are the attributes of these divinities, 
resembling those of the Dioscuri, &c, — Aids. The dative plural 



NOTES ON THE GERMANIA.— CHAP. XLIII. 125 

by a well-known Hellenism (est Mis nomen Alois), and to be deduced, 
therefore, from a nominative plural Aid, not from such a form as 
Alces, which would make Aldbus. Anton derives the name from 
the Sclavonic holcz, " a boy" or "youth," in the plural holczy, with 
which we may compare the well-known epithet of AiooKopoc, " sons 
of Jove," applied to Castor and Pollux. (Anton, Laics. Mon. Schrift, 
1793, i., 22. — Id., Gesch. der Deutscken Nation, i., p. 381. Compare 
Klemm, Germ. Alterthumsk., p. 288.) 

Venerantur. To be taken transitively : the passive was not in use 
except in the participle. — Enumerates paulo ante populos. The Mar- 
signi, Gothini, and Osi. — Insitce. feritati arte ac tempore lenocinantur. 
" Increase the effect of their innate ferocity by calling art and a par- 
ticular time to their aid." Literally, " pander to their innate ferocity 
by means of art and time." Arte refers to their black shields and 
stained bodies ; tempore to the murky nights chosen for their en- 
gagements ; " atras ad pralia nodes legunt." 

Tincta corpora. " Their bodies are stained," i. e., a dark or sable 
hue. This practice, which was unusual among the Germans, was 
probably borrowed from the Sarmatian tribes. (Compare Herod., 
v., 6.) — Ipsa formidine, &c. "By the very alarm (which their as- 
pect occasions?, and by the shade-like appearance of their funereal 
host." The funereal gloom of their sable bands makes these re- 
semble so many spectres. — Infernum. " Unearthly." 

Gotones. Consult Geographical Index. — Regnantur. Consult 
notes on chap. xxv. — Paulo adductius. " With a somewhat tighter 
rein." A metaphor from drawing in the reins of a steed. — Supra 
libertatcm. " To a degree incompatible with freedom." Literally, 
" above freedom," i. e., rising above and triumphing over it. — Pro- 
tinus deinde ah oceano. " Immediately .thereafter in the direction of 
(and reaching to) the ocean." As regards the peculiar meaning of 
ab in this passage, compare the remarks of Hand (ad Tursell., vol. 
i., p. 48) : " Ab indicat regionem et statum rei alicujus. Nam ut lo- 
cum, quern aliqua res obtinet, verbis designemus, ad aliam rem respicere, 
et utriusque situm vel ex vicinia vel ex distantia concipere solemus. 
Latini dicebant rem ab aliqua re stare et sitam esse, ubi intelligebant 
vel regionem adversam, vel vicinam, vel anterior em. Reddi igitur potest 
sensus per a parte, versus," &e. 

Rugii et Lemovii. The Rugii lived between the Oder and Vistula. 
The island of Rugen probably took its name from them. After the 
death of Attila, they took possession of part of Austria, Moravia, 
and Upper Hungary, but in A.D. 480 were either destroyed or dis- 
persed by Odoacer. The Lemovii seem to have dwelt near the 
town and river of Leba. They are not mentioned elsewhere. 



126 NOTES ON THE GERMANIA. CHAP. XLIV. 



CHAPTER XLIV. 

Suionum. The Suiones inhabited the south of Sweden, which 
was supposed by the ancients to be an island. — Ipso in oceano. " In 
the very ocean." The reference is to their supposed insular situa- 
tion. The ocean meant is the Baltic Sea. — Eo differ t. " Differs in 
this respect from that of ours." — Quod utrimque prora, &c. Resem- 
bling the canoes still used by the Swedes, and by our own aborigi- 
nes. (Compare Ann., ii., 6.) — Faratam semper appulsui, &c. " Af- 
fords a front always ready for driving up on the beach." — Nee min- 
istrantur. " They are neither worked." — In ordinem. " In any 
regular order." Observe the employment of in with the accusative, 
on account of the idea of movement implied in adjungunt:- — Solu- 
tum, ut in quibusdam fluminum, &c. "Their mode of rowing is 
without any regularity, as (is practiced) in some rivers, and changes, 
as occasion requires, on this side or on that." The movement 
here described is like the paddling of a canoe. — In quibusdam flumi- 
num. Pronouns, adjectives, and participles in the plural, joined 
with a genitive, are of frequent occurrence in Tacitus. 

Est apud illos et opibus lionos. The wealth here referred to was 
acquired by traffic. What Tacitus here states relative to their 
honoring wealth is directly the reverse of what was the case with 
the other Germans. Of these last our author remarks (chap, v.) : 
" Possessione et usu haud perinde ajficiuntur" &c. — Nullis jam ex- 
ceptionibus. The particle jam here implies, that as we go further 
northward the people degenerate more and more from the spirit of 
liberty which characterized the southern tribes, till at last we come 
to a people with an absolute ruler. — Non precario jure parendi. 
" With no precarious conditions of allegiance." More freely, " with 
an absolute claim upon their obedience." Precarium jus is a right 
granted to a person's entreaties. Some editors take parendi in a 
passive sense, and adduce, as parallel instances, censendi causa (Cic., 
Verr., i., 18) ; celandi (Tibull., i., 9, 23). But this is unnecessary. 

Nee arma in promiscuo. " Nor are arms (allowed to be kept) pro- 
miscuously." Supply concessa sunt. — Et quidem servo. "And he, 
too, a slave." — Oceanus. Their supposed insular situation. — Otiosce 
porro armatorum manus, &c. As in the case of the Praetorian sol- 
diers and the Janissaries. Some editors give otiosa ; but the con- 
struction of a singular noun of multitude with a plural verb is only 
allowable when some clause intervenes and separates them. Such 
a phrase as turba ruunt would be inadmissible. — Enimvero 



NOTES ON THE GERMANIA. CHAP. XLIV., XLV. 127 

regia utilitas est. " In truth, it is the policy of kings." In the pre- 
vious clause, namely, otiosce porro armatorum, &c, the reason is 
given why arms are not allowed to all without distinction ; and now 
we have the other reason assigned wiry the charge of them is in- 
trusted to a slave. 



CHAPTER XLV. 

Trans Suionas aliud mare, &c. " Beyond the Suiones is another 
sea, sluggish and almost without any motion," i. e., on account of 
the ice. (Compare Agric, 10.) — Hinc. " From the following cir- 
cumstance." This refers to what immediately follows, namely, 
quod extremus, &c. — Quod extremus cadentis jam solis fulgor, &c. 
" Because the last brightness of the now setting sun continues so 
vivid, until its rising, as to obscure the stars." Compare Agric, 
12, " Dierum spatia ultra nostri orbis mensuram" &c. In the age 
of Pliny and Tacitus the globular form of the earth was well known. 
(Compare Plin., ii., 64.) And Tacitus considered the earth, though 
not completely spherical, as a globe at rest in the centre of the uni- 
verse, with the land completely surrounded by water ; as Pliny 
(ii., 66) says : " Est igitur in toto globo tellus medio ambitu prcecincta 
circumfluo marly (Compare, also, Plin., ii., 70, 75.) The part of the 
earth from Britain to the pole Tacitus conceived to be flatter than 
that from Italy to Britain, since there was no chain of mountains at 
all to be compared to the Alps ; and hence he talks of the extrema et 
plana terrarum (Agric, 12). And as night is nothing else than the 
shadow of the earth (Plin., ii., 10) rising in the form of a cone, 
since the body illumined is less than the body that illumines it, the 
notion entertained by Tacitus is, that at the time of the solstice, 
when the sun approaches nearer the pole (Plin., ii., 75), and ac- 
cordingly does not sink far below the horizon, the shadow of the 
flatter parts of the earth toward the pole can not shroud the whole 
heavens in darkness (extrema et plana terrarum non erigunt tenebras) ; 
but the surface of the earth only is darkened, while the sky and 
stars appear above the shadow, and are illumined by the rays of the 
sun (infra cozlum et sidera nox cadit, Agric, 12). 

Sonum insuper audiri, &c. " Popular belief adds, that a sound is, 
moreover, heard," &c. The sound here referred to is not that of 
the sun hissing as he sinks into the ocean, which, however, was 
the vulgar belief (compare Strabo, iii., p. 138 ; Juv., xiv., 280), but 
that produced by the Aurora Borealis ; and the formas deorum et 
radios capitis refer likewise to the fanciful shapes assumed by these 
electrical phenomena. To this source, perhaps, may be traced the 



128 NOTES ON THE GERMANIA. CHAP. XLV. 

lays of the northern tribes, and of Ossian respecting the Walkyrs, 
" The ghosts light as the blast of Cromla, the riders of the storm 
and fiery horses, sitting on low-hung clouds, and moving like the 
shadow of mist." 

Blue usque, &c. " Thus far only, and report says true, does na- 
ture extend." Observe that tantum is to be joined in construction 
with illuc usque. For other modes of reading and explaining this 
much-contested clause, consult Walther's note. — Ergo jam dextro, 
&c. " To return, therefore, now, the tribes of the iEstyi, along the 
right-hand shore of the Suevic Sea, are washed by its waves." By 
the Suevic Sea is meant the Baltic. The name of the iEstyi still 
remains in that of the Esthen. They inhabited Prussia, Livonia, 
and Courland. Some think that their name merely means " the 
people of the east." (Compare Meidinger, Etymol. Wdrterb., p. 
508.) — Lingua Britannica propior. Compare Agric, ii., where a 
Germanic origin, whether correctly or not is uncertain, is attributed 
to the Caledonians. 

Matrem deum. The Isis or Hertha of the Suevi, the Frigga of 
the Scandinavians, the Foseta of the Cimbri. (Consult Jacobs, ad 
loc.) — Formas aprorum gestant. " They carry about them the forms 
of wild boars," i. e., as amulets. The boar, as the symbol of fecund- 
ity, was sacred to Hertha. Amulets of the same kind, with which 
the Wends used to ornament the images of their deities, have been 
dug up in the neighborhood of Prilwitch, a town of Mecklenburg. 
Many remnants of this superstition still remain in Sweden. At the 
time of the festival anciently celebrated in honor of Frea, the rus- 
tics make bread into the form of a hog, which is applied to various 
superstitious uses. 

Pro. " Supplying the place of." — Frumentum ceterosque fructus, 
&c. " They cultivate corn and the other fruits of the earth with 
more patient industry than might have been expected from the 
usual indolence of the Germans." Compare chapters xiv., xv. — 
Succinum. " Amber." So called because it was believed to be the 
sap (succus) of a tree. — Quod ipsi glesum vocant. ", Which they 
themselves call glese," i. e., glass, from its brightness (gleissen, 
"to shine"), like fjlenrpov in Greek; from which the Glesaria in- 
sula (Electrides in Greek) received their name. The term glesum, 
it will be perceived, is nothing more than the old German word 
glas or glaes Latinized, and converted into a neuter noun. (Con- 
sult Graff, Althochd. Sprachsch., iv., col. 288.) — Inter vada, atque in 
ipso litore. On the shores of Pomerania, Curonia, and Prussia ; 
now principally on the coast of Samland, from Pillau to the Curische 



NOTES ON THE GERMANIA. CHAP. XLV. 129 

Nehrung. It first became known in the south of Europe through 
the Phoenicians. 

Nee, qua natura, quceve ratio gignat, &c. " Nor has it been in- 
quired into or found out by them, as is usual among barbarians, 
what may be its nature, or what principle of production may give 
it birth," i. e., what is its nature or the manner of its production. — 
Ejectamenta. The term ejectamentum, here employed, is of rare oc- 
currence. We meet with it also in Apuleius. (Apol, 297.) Tac- 
itus appears partial to words of this termination : thus w T e have 
placamenta (Hist., i., 13) ; meditamenta (Hist., iv., 26) ; turbamenta, 
(Hist., i., 23) ; tentamenta (Hist., ii., 38) ; libramenta (Hist., iii., 23), 
&c. — Donee luxuria nostra dedit nomen. " Until our luxury gave it 
a name," i. e., celebrity. This remark must be received with some 
abatement, since it would appear that amber was certainly held in 
some degree of estimation by the ancient Germans, at least small 
balls of this substance strung on horse-hair, and large unwrought 
pieces have been found in tombs. (Spangenberg, N. vaterl. Archiv., 
iv., p. 183. — Klemm, Germ. Alter tkumsk., p. 22.) 

Perfertur. By traders through Pannonia to the Adriatic Sea, and 
thence to Rome.— ,Succum tamen arborum, &c. The same notion is 
advanced by Pliny (xxxvii., 2, 3). It has been shown, however, 
that this opinion, though a common one, is incorrect, and that am- 
ber is bituminous in its nature, and is produced under ground. — Im- 
plicata humore. " Entangled in it while in a liquid state." — Dure- 
sccnte. "As it hardens." 

Fecundiora igitur nemora, &c. " For my own part, therefore, I 
believe, that, as in the remote regions of the east, where incense 
and balsam are exuded, so there are in the islands and lands of the 
west, woods and groves of more than ordinary luxuriance, the 
juices of which, squeezed out and rendered liquid by the rays of the 
sun close to them, flow into the neighboring sea, and are washed 
up on the opposite shores by the force of tempests." The incense 
refers to Arabia, the balsam to Judaea and Arabia. (Compare Virg., 
Georg., i., 57; ii., 117: Plin., xii., 54; xvi., 59: Pausan., ix., 28.) 
— Ut in picem resinamve lentescit. . " It resolves itself into a glutin- 
ous mass, as if into pitch or resin," i. e., resembling pitch or resin. 

Suionibus Sitonum gentes continuantur . " The tribes of the Sitones 
follow in immediate succession after the Suiones." Observe that 
continuari, in the passive, is sometimes, as in the present instance, 
equivalent to proxime hczrere, or continenter sequi. — Sitonum gentes. 
According to Mannert, the Sitones and Suiones are merely branches 
of the same race under different forms of government, the country 

F2 



130 NOTES ON THE GERMANIA. CHAP. XLV., XLVI. 

of both answering to modern Sweden. Probably, however, the 
Sitones extended also into Norway. In the fourth century, the 
Sitones became known in southern countries by the name of Sue- 
thans, having been carried thither in the way of traffic. (Augustin, 
Comment, in Ecclesiast., c. 43, v. 2 ; Jornandes, Get.,c. 3 ; Mannert, 
Geog., iii., p. 321.) 

In tantum. " To such an extent." So "in quantum modum" 
(A?in., xv., 25) : " quantum" {Ann., vi., 21) : "in quantum.'''' (Juv., 
xiv., 318.) — Non modo a libertate, &c. Compare the paraphrase of 
Pichena : " Degenerant a libertate, quia ceteri Germani fere omnes 
liberif hi servi ; degenerant a servitute, quia servientes populi Regibus, 
ideoque hominibus, servire solent, hi feminis ." 



CHAPTER XLVI. 

Pcucuiorum, &c. Consult Geographical Index. — Sede ac domi- 
cdiis. "In fixedness of settlement and in the nature of their dwell- 
ings." The settlements and habitations of the Peucini were fixed 
and stationary ; whereas the Sarmatians wandered about in their 
wagons. — Sordes omnium ac torpor. u Filth and laziness are charac- 
teristics of all." A far more natural reading than to place, as some 
do, a colon after procerum, and no stop after torpor. — Procerum con- 
nubiis mixtis, &c. " Through the intermarriage of their chiefs 
with the Sarmatians, they are gradually assuming the disgusting 
character of that people." 

Ex moribus. Supply Sarmatarum. — Hi tamen inter Germanos, 
&c. Ptolemy and others, more correctly, make them a branch of 
the Sarmatians. — Domus fingunt. So " luteum finger e opus" (Ovid, 
Fast., i., 158); " finger c nidos" (Cic., de Or., ii., 6.) There is an- 
other reading, figunt, which Walther prefers.— Qua, omnia diver sa, 
&c. " All which customs differ from those of the Sarmatae, living, 
as they do, in wagons and on horseback." Literally, "all which 
things are different unto the Sarmatae." 

Fennis. The Fenni are the modern Finns, the inhabitants of 
Finnland. — Cubile humus. " Their couch is the ground." Observe 
the change of construction. We would naturally have expected 
cubili humus, but the nominative is substituted as more emphatic. — 
Ossibus asperant. " They roughly head with bones." The Sibe- 
rian tribes, at the present day, employ for a like purpose the bones 
of fish. Observe, with regard to the verb aspero, that it occurs most 
frequently in the poets and in Tacitus. In Cicero it never appears. 

Passim enim comitantur. " For they accompany (their husbands) 



NOTES ON THE GERMANIA. CHAP. XLVI. 131 

every where." Supply viros. — In aliquo ramorum nexu. " Beneath 
some interlacing of boughs." — Ing enter e agris, illaborare domibus. 
" To groan over fields, to labor upon dwellings," i. e., to groan over 
the plough, to labor in the erection of dwellings. The verb illabo- 
rare is here formed after the model of ingcmere. It nowhere else 
appears in this meaning, since illaboratus, which does occur, has 
the signification of " not labored," "done without labor." — Suas 
alienasque fortunas, &c. " To keep their own fortunes and those 
of others in a state of constant disquiet through mingled hope and 
fear," i. e., to be harassed by the alternate hopes and fears of en- 
riching or ruining themselves and others in trade and traffic. 

Securi adversus homines. " Without care and anxiety as regards 
men." Observe that securi, in this and the following clause, must 
not be rendered " safe." Compare Agric, 9 : " Castrensis jurisdic- 
tio securaet obtusior," &c, and " unice securus" (Horat., Od., i., xxvi., 
3.) — Ut Mis ne voto quidem opus esset. " That they would not need 
even a wish." Rhenanus conjectured opus sit for opus esset, and 
his emendation was adopted by all subsequent editors until the time 
of Ernesti, who restored esset, without, however, assigning a very 
satisfactory reason. The true reason is this : Tacitus does not 
mean to say that they have no need even of a wish, as if stating a 
fact ; but he gives merely the result of his own reflections, namely, 
that they would not need even a wish, if there were any thing to be 
actually wished for. Compare the explanation of Walther : " dass 
sie auch nicht cinmal das Bedurfniss eines Wunsches haben durften 
(scilicet si quid esset optandum)." 

Hellusios et Oxionas. Probably the inhabitants of Lapland. The 
fable here stated may possibly have arisen from their wearing the 
skins of wild beasts. — Oxionas. Tacitus occasionally uses this 
Greek ending, as in Helveconas (chap, xliii.) ; Suionas (chap, xlv.) ; 
Vangionas ac Nemetas {Ann., xii., 27). — In medium relinquam. " I 
will make a subject of doubt, and leave undecided." Equivalent, 
as Botticher correctly remarks, to in dubium vocatum relinquam in 
medio. The preposition in, though joined here with the accusative, 
includes at the same time the idea of the ablative, and the clause 
may, therefore, be ranked under the head of a syllepsis. (Consult 
the remarks of Botticher on the style of Tacitus, p. xlii. of the pres- 
ent volume.) 



NOTES 



THE AGRICOLA. 



NOTES ON THE AGRICOLA, 



The composition of this work may be assigned, from internal and 
external evidence, to the year of Rome 850-1 (A.D. 98-97), four 
years after Agricola's death. The first three chapters comprise the 
preface, the substance of which is as follows : In times of yore, 
when there was no reason, as now, to dread men's ignorance of vir- 
tue, and their envy of her votaries, it was usual to hand down to 
posterity the exploits and characters of famous men ; and a man 
was not found fault with even if he narrated his own life. But in 
times like these, when we have only lately seen that to praise il- 
lustrious men was a capital crime, I must plead for favor and in- 
dulgence, which I should not have done had not my path lain 
through times inimical to virtue, in which even those remain un- 
punished through whose charges Agricola fell, and through whose 
means many have been calumniated. At length, however, spirit 
and liberty are returning, though the desire of writing springs up 
but gradually and slowly, since talents and zeal may be more 
quickly smothered and suppressed than roused again to vigor and 
activity ; and sloth, at first the object of our hatred, ends with in- 
gratiating itself into our favor. Hence I am led to hope that I 
shall meet with excuse for having formed the design of writing this 
memoir. 



CHAPTER I. 
Clarorum viroram facta mores que, &c. " To transmit to posterity 
the exploits and characters of distinguished men, a custom prevalent 
in early days, not even in our own times has the age, though taking 
little interest in its own (eminent individuals), entirely neglected, 
as often as some great and ennobling instance of merit has triumphed 
over and surmounted a vice common to small and great communi- 
ties, an insensibility to, and an envying of virtue." Observe that 
the epithet clarus is properly applied to those who are distinguished, 
not by birth, but by personal merit, as warriors or statesmen. — Usi- 
iatum. Accusative sing. neut. of the participle, agreeing with the 
preceding clause. — Recti. The term rectum here corresponds to 



136 NOTES ON THE AGRICOLA. CHAP. I. 

bpduv, bpOornc, in the Platonic sense. Compare Auct. ad Herenn., 
iii., 2 : " Rectum, constans ex virtute et officio, dividitur in prudentiam, 
justitiam, fortitudinem, modestiam." — Ignorantiam recti et invidiam. 
Two causes alone can, according to Tacitus, deprive the eminent 
men of his time of the fame to which their merit is entitled, namely, 
their contemporaries either deny their claims to distinction, from 
an ignorance of what is truly great, or else meanly envy them. 

Pronum magisque in aperto erat. " Was easy and more unob- 
structed (than in our own times)." Pronus properly means, " bend- 
ing forward," " inclined," and hence, " easy." It is by no means, 
however, merely synonymous here with magis in aperto, as some 
suppose. Things are said to be in aperto in two ways : first, as re- 
gards a becoming acquainted with them, and then they are clear and 
free from all obscurity ; and, secondly, as regards a performing of 
them, and then they are free from obstruction and impediment. It 
is in the latter sense that in aperto is here used. Peerlkamp con- 
jectures pronum magis atque in aperto erat, ox pronum magis magisque 
in aperto erat ; but magis is not required with, pronum, since this epi- 
thet of itself denotes that which inclines more in some particular di- 
rection. (Compare Walther, ad loc.) 

Celeberrimus quisque ingenio, &c. Beside Arulenus Rusticus, and 
Senecio, mentioned in chapter ii., Pliny the elder is named as the 
biographer of Pomponius Secundus ; Claudius Pollio wrote a life of 
Musonius Bassus (Plin., Ep., vii., 31) ; and Julius Secundus, a life 
of Julius Asiaticus. (Dial, de Or., 14.) — Sine gratia aut ambitione. 
"Without predilection or interested motives." The term ambitio 
is not used here in the old Roman sense of an honorable suing for 
preferment or public favor (as well explained by Ernesti, Clav. 
Cic., s. v., and Heusinger, ad Cic, Off., i., 30, 9), but in the unfavor- 
able meaning which it acquired during the silver age, when ambitio 
became a vitium, and denoted a desire to gain notoriety, or to pro- 
mote one's own interests by ministering to the wishes or prejudices 
of others. (Consult Walch, ad loc. ; Spalding, ad Quintil., i., 2, 22 ; 
Botticher, Lex. Tac, s. v.) 

Ac plerique suam ipsi vitam narrare, &c. " Many, too, considered 
it rather as a confidence in their integrity, than as a mark of arro- 
gance, for themselves to write the history of their own lives." 
Tacitus frequently makes plerique, as in the present instance, equiv-, 
alent merely to noTCkol, and not to have its full force of ol ttoaIoL — 
Nee id Rutilio et Scauro, &c. " Nor did this prove, unto a Rutilius 
and a Scaurus, a ground for withholding full credit, or a source of 
censure," Compare note on u extra speciem:" Germ., c. 16. Ru- 



NOTES ON THE AGRICOLA. CHAP. I.* II. 137 

tilius, in addition to a biography of himself, composed a history and 
some orations. He was lieutenant to Q. Metellus Numidieus, 
A.U.C. 645. He was accused of bribery by Scaurus, w r as unjustly 
condemned, and went into exile at Smyrna, of w r hich place he be- 
came a citizen, and refused to return at the invitation of Sylla. M. 
JEmilius Scaurus was consul with M. Case. Metellus in A.U.C. 639, 
and again in 647, and censor in 645. He was one of the commis- 
sioners sent into Africa in the Jugurthine war, and suffered himself 
to be corrupted by Jugurtha. He was a violent opposer of Saturni- 
nus ; and was charged by Varius with having been instrumental in 
exciting the revolt of the Italian allies, but was acquitted. {Cic, 
Brut., 29 ; Plin., xxxiii., 6.) It is not unlikely that Rutilius, in his 
voluntary exile, wrote his own life as a defence of his conduct, and 
that this induced Scaurus to write a biography of himself. 

Adeo. "So true it is that." Literally, "to such a degree." 
Compare De Lamalle, " tant il est vrai que," &c. 



CHAPTER II. 

At mihi, nunc narraturo, &c. Though, under Nerva, liberty had 
again dawned upon Rome, and men's courage had begun to revive, 
Tacitus had still to fear the malicious accusations of many, who 
would imagine that, in portraying the crimes of the past age, a side 
reference was made to their own ; and, therefore, at the commence- 
ment of his memoir he asks for security against all charges of this 
kind. This passage may be illustrated from the Annals (iv., 33). — 
Ni cursaturus tempora. " Were I not about to traverse times." A 
metaphor borrowed from the movements of the circus. Some of 
the early editions read ni incur saturus, from which Lipsius conjec- 
tured ni incusaturus, and this latter reading has been adopted by- 
several subsequent editors. No change, however, is required in the 
common text. 

Legimus, cum Aruleno Rustico, &c. Both occurrences took place 
in Domitian's reign, A.U.C. 846 or 847. Tacitus was present at 
the death of Senecio, as w r e learn from chapter xlv. The reference 
in legimus is to the Acta Diurna (" Proceedings of the Day"), a kind 
of gazette published daily at Rome under the authority of the gov- 
ernment, and Which contained an account of the proceedings of the 
public assemblies, of the law courts, of the punishment of offend- 
ers, and also a list of births, marriages, deaths, &c. (Consult 
Diet. Ant., s. v.) — Aruleno Rustico. Dio Cassius states that Domi- 
tian put Arulenus to death because he was a philosopher, and be- 



138 NOTES ON THE AGIUCOLA. CHAP. II. 

cause he had given Thrasea the appellation of " holy" (nal on rbv 
Qpaakav lepbv cjvo/xa^s. Dio Cass., lxvii., 11. Compare Ann., xvi., 
25, 26). Among the accusers of Arulenus, M. Regulus was subscript 
tor. The real accuser was Metius Carus. — Pectus Thrasea. For 
the account of the death of this individual under Nero (A.U.C. 820), 
consult Ann., xvi., 21. — Herennio Senecioni. With regard to this in- 
dividual, consult chapter xlv. — Priscus Helvidius. Helvidius Pris- 
cus was the son-in-law of Thrasea. (Consult Hist., iv., 5.) He 
was banished and put to death by Vespasian. (Suet., Vesp., 15; 
Masson, Vit. Plin., p. 15.) 

Triumviris. The Triumviri Capitales are meant, among whose 
other duties was that of carrying into effect the sentences of the 
law, &c. They were attended by eight lictors to execute their or- 
ders. Pliny (Ep., vii., 19) says, " senatus consulto abolitos libros" 
alluding to the present affair ; but this contains no contradiction to 
the narrative of Tacitus, since the decree of the senate would come 
first, and the burning of the works by the Triumvirs, or, rather, their 
lictors, would follow. (Walch, ad loc.) — In comitio ac foro. The 
comitium adjoined the forum, and was the place of public execution 
in the time of the emperors. Originally, it was the spot where the 
Comitia Curiata were held. Compare Seneca (Cont., vii., 1): 
" Nefas commissum est, ad ezpiandum scelus Triumviris opus est, 
comitio, carnifice.''' 

Conscientiam generis humani. " The secret convictions of man- 
kind." The term conscientia is here employed to denote the knowl- 
edge or persuasion of a thing which one has in common with others, 
or, as Botticher terms it, " communis alicujus rei scientia," and the 
idea of Tacitus is well carried out by the Delphin editor : " cognitio 
hcBc interna et arcana omnium mortalium, quce simul et secreta ac tacita 
accusatio fuit scelerum Domitiani : qua conscientia ad tempus cohibita 
vi dominationis, pressaque silentio, tandem erumperety — Expulsis in- 
super sapienticz professoribus, &c. Eusebius mentions that the phi- 
losophers (who are here meant by sapienticc professores) were twice 
expelled by Domitian, first in A.D. 89, and again in A.D. 96. That 
Tacitus refers to the latter of these occasions, is evident from chap, 
xlv., and from Dio Cassius (lxvii., 13), 01 6e TioltcoI ((pMaoyot) av- 
6lc k^riTiddrjaav e/c rf/c Tufir/c. As this expulsion of the philosophers 
is spoken of as the consequence of the deaths of Senecio and Aru- 
lenus, it should probably be placed in the commencement of A.U.C. 
847, or A.D. 94. ( Walch, ad loc.) 

Vetus atas. This expression, like prius cevum (Hist., i., 1), gen- 
erally refers in Tacitus to the period before the battle of Actium. — 



NOTES ON THE AGRICOLA. CHAP. II., III. 139 

Quid ultimum in libertate esset. " What was the furthest limit in 
freedom." By the ultimum in libertate we are not to understand the 
greatest happiness, nor the last remnants of liberty under Augustus 
and Tiberius ; but rather, as Walch remarks, unbridled licentious- 
ness, the immodcrata libertas of Cicero. (Cic, Ep. ad Quint. Fr., 
i., 1.) — Per inquisitiones . " By spyings (in the very bosoms of our 
families)." Compare Walch : " heimliche Nachsp'dhungen ;" and, as 
an illustration of the idea intended to be conveyed by the term, Ann., 

iv., 69: " Pavens civitas notce ignotaque aures vitari ; etiam 

muta et inanima, tectum et parietes circumspectabantur '." — Et loquendi. 
Lipsias conjectures etiam loquendi, but without any necessity, since 
et itself has here the force of etiam. (Walther, ad loc.) 

Memoriam quoque ipsam, &c. The meaning is this : we would 
have gone so far in our patient endurance of tyranny, as not to have 
dared even to remember if, &c. This explanation will obviate the 
objection made to nostra by Jacob in Jahn's Jahrbucher, for 1828, 
vol. ii., 2, p. 161. 



CHAPTER III. 

Animus. " Courage." — Et quamquam. The conjunction et has 
here the force of et tamen, " and yet." — Beatissimi sceculi. " Of this 
most blissful period." The term saculum here does not mean a 
century, but a period of uncertain duration, lasting until another 
emperor introduced a new order of things. Thus Pliny (Ep., x., 2) 
styles the reign of Domitian " tristissimum scEculum.^ The period, 
to the commencement of which Tacitus here alludes, deserved, as 
the event abundantly showed, the epithet beatissimum here bestowed 
upon it. It began when, after the death of Domitian, the imperial 
authority devolved on Nerva, and the virtues of this prince were em- 
ulated by the successive emperors Trajan, Hadrian, and both the 
Antonines. The reigns of these five monarchs, embracing a period 
of nearly ninety years, formed the happiest era in the history of the 
Roman Empire. 

JServa Ccesar. Since Tacitus does not apply to him the term 
Divus, it may be conjectured that the life of Agricola was published 
while Nerva was yet alive, that is, between the 16th of September, 
A.D. 97, when Trajan was adopted, and the 27th of January, A.D. 
98, the date of Nerva's death. (Walch, ad loc. — Ryckius, ad Ann., 
iii., 24.) — Res dim dissociabiles miscuerit. "Has united things be- 
fore irreconcilable." — Nerva Trajanus. Trajan was so called when 
adopted by Nerva. Brotier refers to a gold coin, in the royal col- 



140 NOTES ON THE AGRICOLA. CHAP. III. 

lection at Paris, with the inscription NERVA TRAJAN. C^ES. 
GERM. NERV. AVG. F. P. TR. P. COS. II., that is, Nerva Traja- 
nus, Ccesar, Germanicus, Nerva Augusti films, Pontifex, Tribunicia 
Potestatis, consul iterum ; and on the reverse ADOPTATIO. — Nee 
span modo ac votum, &c. " And the public security has not only 
conceived hopes and wishes, but has attained unto confidence in 
the fulfillment of those very wishes, and unto a state of stability." 
Observe the zeugma in assumserit, by which it obtains in the first 
clause the force of conceperit. The public security, moreover, is 
here personified, and there is an allusion to the medallions struck 
by the emperors, with the figure of the goddess Securitas, and the 
inscription SECVRITAS or SECVRITATI PERPETVAE. 

Ingenia studiaque. "Talents and literary industry. 1 ' — Subit. 
" Steals over us." Analogous to the Greek vnipxerac. 

Per quindecim annos. Referring to the fifteen years of Domitian's 
tyranny, from A.D. 81 to 96, between the reigns of Titus and 
Nerva. — Multi fortuitis casibus. This is the emendation of Lipsius, 
in place of the common reading multis fortuitis casibus. The op- 
position between multi and promtissimus quisque proves at once the 
correctness of the change. — Promtissimus quisque. " All those most 
distinguished for readiness and activity." 

Pauci, ut ita dixerim, &c. "A few of us are, if I may use the ex- 
pression, survivors not only of others, but even of our own selves," 
z*. e., have outlived not only others, in a corporeal sense, but even our 
own selves in what relates to the mind : because, to use the words 
of Pliny (Ep , viii., 14), " Ingenia nostra in posterum quoque hebetata, 
fracta, contusa sunt." Observe that the words ut ita dixerim are in- 
tended as an apology for the boldness of expression in nostri super- 
stites. With regard, moreover, to the employment here of dixerim 
instead of the earlier dicam, consult Zumpt, § 528, note 1. 

Quibus juvenes ad senectutem, &c. Tacitus could not include him- 
self among the senes, a latter class here mentioned, since at this 
period he was only about forty-five years old. — Per silentium. By 
silentium is here meant the repression of mental activity, referring 
to what was said before, studia represseris facilius quam revocaveris. 

Memoriam prioris servitutis. " A memorial of former servitude." 
Namely, in his Annals and Histories. — Testimonium prasentium bo- 
norum. In the history of Nerva and Trajan which he intended to 
compose in his old age. (Compare Hist., i., 1.) — Hie interim liber, 
&c. "The present work, meanwhile, dedicated to the honor of 
my father-in-law Agricola, will be either praised, or (at least) ex- 
cused, from its profession of filial piety," *i. e., from the feeling of 



NOTES ON THE AGRICOLA. CHAP. IV. 141 

filial piety in which it professes to have heen composed, or, in other 
words, from the piety of the intent. The term pietas most gener- 
ally means filial piety or affection. 



CHAPTER IV. 

Veterc et illustri Forojuliensium colonia. " In the ancient and il- 
lustrious colony of Forumjulii." The town of Forumjulii (called 
also Forojulii) was situate in Gallia Narbonensis, and is now Frejus. 
It must not be confounded with Forumjulii in Venetia, now Friuli. 
The term illustris is here applied to the former, not so much from its 
own intrinsic importance as from the renown of its founder, Julius 
Caesar. It was founded about the year B.C. 43, on the site of the an- 
cient Oxubia. Pliny (iii., 4) calls the place Octavanorum colonia, from 
the veterans of the 8th legion, who composed the colony ; and Pa- 
censis et Classica, from its being the station of a Roman fleet. — Pro- 
curatorem Cccsarum. " An imperial procurator." These procura- 
tores not only exacted the tribute from the provinces, and acted as 
stewards where the emperor had possessions, but collected the 
vigesima hcreditatum and other imperial perquisites. (Compare 
Mascow, de Procurat., i., 7, and Walch, ad loc.) — Qua equestris no- 
bilitas est. " Which post confers equestrian nobility," i. c., which 
post raises a man to the rank of an eques illustris, and gives him the 
right to sit in the senate and to wear the toga laticlavia. A dis- 
tinction of rank had arisen even in the time of Augustus among the 
equites. (Compare Dio Cass., liv., 30, and Walch, ad loc.) 

Julius Gracinus. Seneca bears very honorable testimony to his 
character, and says that he was put to death by Caligula because 
it was inexpedient for a tyrant to have so virtuous a subject. 
(Senec, de Bene/., ii., 21.) The name Graecinus occurs in the Fasti, 
among the consules suffecti of the year A. D. 16. From the contents 
of the books (xiv. and xv.), for which Pliny consulted the works of 
this individual, he would appear to have written on botany or viti- 
culture. (Compare, also, Columell., i., 14.) — Sapientia. Philosophy 
is meant. — M. Silanum. Silanus was consul A.D. 19. {Ann., ii., 
59.) In the year 33, Caligula married his daughter Junia Claudilla. 
(Ann., vi., 20.) He was appointed proconsul of Africa, and after- 
ward put to death by the emperor. (Hist., iv., 48. Suet., Cal., 23.) 

In hujus sinu indulgentiaque educatus. " Brought up in the bosom 
and beneath the affectionate care of this parent." The expression 
in sinu refers to the strict supervision exercised by his parent, and 
indulgentia (which is here to be taken in a good sense) to the mild- 



142 NOTES ON THE AGRICOLA. CHAP. IV. 

ness with which that supervision was affectionately enforced. Ag- 
ricola's mother brought back the old Roman custom of mothers 
themselves superintending the education of their children, and not 
leaving this to slaves. Hence the peculiar force of in sinu. Hein- 
sius, mistaking the true meaning of indulgentia here, conjectures, 
very unnecessarily, in cujus sinu diligenti cura, or indulgentia abs- 
que. — Per omnem honestarum artium cultum. " In the cultivation 
of all liberal studies." Omnem must here be taken in sense with 
artium. 

Arcebat eum ab illecebris, &c. " Independently of his own good and 
uncorrupted disposition, it served to keep him from the allurements 
of the vicious, that from earliest boyhood he had had Massilia as the 
seat and directress of his studies, a place where Grecian politeness 
was mingled and well united with provincial moderation and fru- 
gality." Observe that the indicative habuerat is necessary, because 
it simply assigns the reason for arcebat. The reading habuerit is er- 
roneous. — Massiliam. Massilia, by the Greeks called Massalia (Macr- 
cahia), and now Marseilles, was a celebrated colony of the Pho- 
caeans, on the Mediterranean coast of Gaul. It became famous 
under the Roman emperors as a school of literature and the sci- 
ences. — Locum Grceca comitate, &c. Enallage, for locus in quo 

mixta erant. 

Acrius hausisse. " Would have drunk in too eagerly," i. e., w T ould 
have pursued with too much ardor. Observe that hausisse is here 
for hausurumfuisse. Pichena conjectured ac juris instead of acrius, 
and is followed by some editors ; but the study of jurisprudence 
was never forbidden to a Roman and a senator. — Ultra quam con- 
cessum, &c. Observe that by senatori is here properly meant not 
an actual senator, but a person of senatorial birth, that is, whose 
father was a senator. (Dronke, ad loc.) The study of philosophy 
was never held in high estimation by the Romans generally (com- 
pare Cic, Off., ii., 1) ; here, however, the reference is to the state of 
things under the empire, when philosophical studies, especially those 
connected with the doctrines of the Stoics, were viewed by bad 
princes with a suspicious eye, as tending to foster sentiments hos- 
tile to tyranny. (Walch, ad loc.) 

Pulchritudinem ac specicm. "The beauty and the array." Not 
a hendiadys, as some maintain, for pulchram speciem. On the con- 
trary, species increases the force of pulchritudo. Compare the re- 
mark of Botticher (Prolegom. ad Tac, p. lxxxi.) : " Auget species vim 
pulchritudinis eamque designat qua oculis hominum se prcebet." — Ve- 
hcmentius quam caute. This is one of the many varieties which 



NOTES ON THE AGRICOLA. CHAP. IV., V. 143 

Tacitus employs in expressing a comparison, the positive being 
used for the comparative. The more regular construction would 
have been vehementius quam cautius. — Retinuitque, quod est dijftcilli- 
mum, &c. " And he retained, what is the most difficult of all, fron? 
the study of wisdom, moderation." The ancient philosophers taught 
that nothing is good in itself unless under the regulation of Qpovv 
cig. (Plat., Men., p. 88, B. Arist., Eth. ad Nic, ii., 5.) Compart? 
Horace (Ep., i., 6, 15) : 

" Insani sapiens nomcn ferat, aquus iniqui, 
Ultra quam satis est virtulem si pctat ipsam" 
Plato (Gorg., p. 484, c.) gives the best commentary upon this' 
passage : ^cXoaocpta ydproi koriv, ti 1>6Kpareg, x^ L ? lEV -> uv tic clvtov 
fierplcoc diprjrai kv rrj jfkmia \ kav de irepairepG) tov deovroc evdiarpiipy, 
6ca(p6opa tov avdpoirov. 'Eav yap Kal ndvv svdvqc y, Kal noppo Tr)c 
TjTiLKtac (j)t?iOGO(f>y, avaynT) irdvrcov dnecpov yeyovhai early o)v XPV fy- 
TZEtpov elvai tov \iek\ovra naXov tcayadov Kal evdoKtfzov eaeodaL dvdpa, 
k. t. A. (Walch, ad loc.) 



CHAPTER V. 

Prima castrorum rudimenta, &c. " He acquired the rudiments of 
military training in Britain, to the full satisfaction of Suetonius Pau- 
linus, an active and prudent commander, since he had been selected 
(by that general) as one of whose character he might form an esti- 
mate through the intimacy of a common mess," i. e., since he had 
been chosen by that general a member of his military family, with 
the view of forming a more accurate estimate of his abilities amid 
the familiar intercourse to which this relation would give rise. It 
was usual for young men of rank and talents to be admitted to this 
familiar intercourse with the general, as a sort of pupilage, or initi- 
ation into the duties of a military life. Contubcrnium properly de- 
notes a certain number of soldiers quartered in the same tent ; and 
then a common occupying of one and the same tent, a messing to- 
gether, &c. 

Suetonio Paulino. Suetonius Paulinus was appointed to the com- 
mand of Britain in A.D. 59, during the reign of Nero, and Agricola 
probably came with him to the island. At all events, he was in 
Britain in A.D. 61. — Approbavit. When a person contracted to per- 
form a piece of work, and brought it back completed according to 
the terms of the agreement, he was said approbare opus locatori. 
(Gronov., ad Plant., Amphit., Prol. 13.) Hence the figurative em- 
ployment of the verb on the present occasion.— Electus. Equiva- 



144 NOTES ON THE AGRICOLA. CHAP. V. 

lent, not to postquam electus erat, but rather to quippe qui electus erat. 
— JEstimaret. The verb cestimare implies the attentive contempla- 
tion of an object to discover its value and quality. It never means 
" to think worthy," or " to esteem." Oberlin is in error when he 
says, " (Estimate est dignum judicare, non explorare." {Watch, ad 
loc.) 

Nee Agricola licenter, &c. "Neither did Agricola licentiously, 
(on the one hand), after the manner of young men (in general), who 
convert a military life into a scene of dissipation, nor slothfully, (on 
the other), avail himself of the rank of tribune for indulging in 
pleasures, or leave of absence, or for continuing in ignorance." 
Literally, " Nor did Agricola refer the rank of tribune to pleas- 
ures," &c. We must not join together titulum et inscitiam tribu- 
natus, but ad voluptates et commeatus et inscitiam titulum tribunatus 
retulit. To express the full force of the sentence a pause should be 
made before inscitiam. 

Sed noscere provinciam. " But he proceeded to make himself ac- 
quainted with the province." The infinitive noscere, and those that 
follow throughout the sentence, are historical ones, and there is no 
ellipsis of any verb to govern them. — Nihil appetere in jactationem. 
"He sought after nothing for mere display," i. e., he sought after 
no employment or situation merely for the purpose of making an 
ostentatious display of himself. — Simulque anxius et intentus agere. 
" And discharged his duties at one and the same time with solici- 
tude and with spirit," i. e., with equal solicitude and spirit. Observe 
that anxius refers to things future, intentus to things present. 

Exercitatior. " In a more agitated state." Poetical usage. The 
prose form of expression would be bello exercitatior. (Cic, de Or., 
ii., 15. Compare Oudendorp, ad Suet., p. 355.) — Trucidati veterani, 
incensa colonic. The veterans in the colony of Camulodunum 
(Colchester), whose town was completely destroyed. — Intercepti ex- 
ercitus. " Our armies were cut off and destroyed." Tacitus refers 
here to the legion under Petilius Cerialis, which was coming to the 
assistance of the veterans. The disturbance was quelled by Sue- 
tonius Paulinus, on his return from Mona. (Ann., xiv., 29, seqq.) 
Camulodunum was the only colony in Britain ; hence it has been 
proposed to read incensa colonia ; but the alteration is unnecessary, 
since Tacitus only appears to have used the plural in an oratorical 
manner, as the other words veterani and exercitus are in the plural. 
Londinium was not a colony; and Verulamium (St. Albarfs) was 
a municipium. Besides, we are not told that these places were 
burned. 



NOTES ON THE AGRICOLA. CHAP. V., VI 145 

Alterius. Suetonius Paulinus. — Summa rerum. " The control of 
affairs." — Artem et usum et stimulos addidere juveni. " They, never- 
theless, imparted professional skill and experience and incentives 
to the youth," i. e., they, nevertheless, improved and animated the 
young Agricola. — Ingrata temporibus. " (A desire) uncongenial to 
the times." Those, namely, of Nero. — Sinistra erga eminentes in- 
terpretatio. "A sinister construction was put on the conduct of 
those who made themselves in any way conspicuous." 



CHAPTER VI. 

In Urbemdigressus. A.D. 62. — Domitiam Decidianam. The name 
Decidiana, may probably have arisen from her mother's having been 
called Dccidia. The names Vespasianus and Domitianus arose in a 
similar way. (Consult Walch, ad loc.) — Idque matrimonium, &c. 
This marriage secured for him, in seeking preferment, the influence 
of the powerful Gens Domitia. — Et invicem se anteponendo. " And 
each giving the preference to the other." 

Nisi quod in bona uxore, &c. " Save that there is so much more 
of what is praiseworthy in a good wife, by how much more of what 
is blamable there is in a bad one." Laus is here used for what- 
ever is praiseworthy ; and its opposite, culpa, for whatever is blam- 
able. Nisi quod, which restricts or corrects something that has 
been said before, is often used with an ellipse, which must be sup- 
plied by the reader. So here the meaning of the sentence is, 
" They both loved one another sincerely, and each gave the other 
the preference ; for which both deserve credit ; only we must allow 
that in a virtuous wife there is proportion ably as much more of 
what is praiseworthy, as in a bad wife there is of what is blam- 
able," t. e., when placed in comparison with the virtues and vices 
of the husband ; because, from the weaker character of woman, the 
restraining of any evil propensities is more worthy of praise. (Com- 
pare Walch) ad loc.) 

Sors qucesturce. " The lot of the quaestorship." The office of 
quaestor was the entrance to all public employments, and it was, 
therefore, the first one held by Agricola. The quaestors, with the 
exception of the Candidati Principis, drew lots for their several 
provinces, that there might be no previous connection between 
them and the governors of the same, but that they might serve as 
checks upon each other. — Sah^i Titianum. Lucius Salvius Otho 
Titianus, the elder brother of M^.'felvius Otho, the future emperor, 
who was at this time serving as p^consul in Lusitania. (Consult 
Ann., xii., 52 ; Hist., i., 77, 90 ; ii., 23, 33, 39, 60.1 

G 



146 NOTES ON THE AGRICOLA. CHAP. VI. 

Parata peccantibus. " Prepared for delinquents," i. e., where 
many of the inhabitants stood ready to be the instruments of the 
crimes of their rulers. (Virdung, ad loc.) — Et proconsul, in omnem 
aviditatem pronus, &c. " And the proconsul, prone to every species 
of rapacity, would have purchased the mutual concealment of guilt 
by granting Agricola any facility (for plundering) which he might 
wish." — Filia. Afterward the wife of Tacitus. — Ante sublatum. 
"Previously born." Literally, "previously taken up," i. e., taken 
up and acknowledged. New-born infants were placed on the ground ; 
and, if the father chose to acknowledge and rear them, he lifted them 
up (tollebat). If he did not do so, they were exposed. — Brevi amisit. 
He also lost a second son, born twenty years afterward. (Compare 
chapter xxviii.) 

Inter qucesturam ac tribunatum plebis, &c. " The year between 
his quaestorship and tribuneship of the commons, and also the year 
of his tribuneship itself, he passed," &c. Observe that annum must 
be taken with inter qucest. ac trib., as well as tribunatus. — Quibus 
inertia pro sapientia fnit. " In which indolence was wisdom." — 
Prceturce. Agricola was prsetor in A.D. 67. He had been tribune 
in A.D. 65, and quaestor in A.D. 63. 

Nee enim jurisdictio obvenerat. " For no actual jurisdiction had 
fallen to his lot," i. e., he was neither Prcetor urbanus, nor Prator 
peregrinus, but of the number of those from whom all judicial func- 
tions had virtually been taken by the usurpation of the emperors ; 
for even the qucestiones perpetuce were in the hands of the senate, 
and carried on under imperial direction. Little else, therefore, was 
left to the praetors than the management of the games. ( Walch, ad 
loc.) With obvenerat, supply sorte. 

Ludos et inania honoris, &c. " He exhibited the games and 
empty pageantry connected with official preferment, by keeping 
within the limit prescribed by proper calculation and the extent of 
his own means ; as, on the one hand, far removed from lavish ex- 
penditure, so, on the other, nearer to an honorable fame," i. e., he 
exhibited them in such a way that, though celebrated without any 
great profusion, they would be extolled for their splendor, rather 
than passed over in silence, as though exhibited in a paltry manner. 
The games, &c., referred to here were those exhibited by the prae- 
tors on attaining to office, and on which these magistrates usually 
spent enormous sums in order to ingratiate themselves with the 
people, and thus pave the way to still higher preferment. — Modo 
rationis atque abundantice. This is the uniform reading of the earlier 
editions. One of the MSS., however, has medio, altered probably by 



NOTES ON THE AGRICOLA. CHAP. VI., VII. 147 

some copyist from the more difficult modo. If we adopt this latter 
reading, with Becker and Hertel, the meaning will be, " by pursuing 
a middle course between rational expenditure and profusion." Lip- 
sius conjectures moderationis atque abundanticB, giving duxit the force 
of putavit, which Oberlin and others adopt, supplying rem esse. The 
true reading, however, is the one which we have given. The ex- 
planation is Walch's. — Duxit. Observe that ducere is here equiva- 
lent to edere. The notion of leading a procession, &c., gave rise to 
that of "taking the lead in," "presiding over," "managing," &c. 
The verb qyeiodac is used in a similar manner in Greek. 

Diligentissima conquisitione, &c. Not only were the temples de- 
stroyed by the conflagration in the reign of Nero ; but, when Nero 
himself was in want of money for the erection of his palace, he de- 
spoiled the temples of their offerings. (Ann., xv., 38, seqq.) Taci- 
tus means to say that Agricola succeeded in recovering most of 
the treasure from the hands of those who had appropriated it dur- 
ing the confusion, except such part as had been plundered by Nero. 
These conquisitiones sacrorum were not unfrequently instituted. 
(Compare Liv., xxv., 7.) — Ne sensisset. "Should not have felt," 
i. e., did not feel. There is no enallage of tense here, as some sup- 
pose. The reference is merely to what was passing at the time in 
the mind of Agricola before the object in view was accomplished. 
He exerted himself to bring it about, that the state should not have 
felt the sacrilege, &c, after the matter might have been brought to 
a close. (Walt her, ad loc.) 



CHAPTER VII. 

Sequens annus. A.D. 69. — Classis Othoniana, &c. The affair 
here alluded to occurred in the month of March, A.D. 69, during the 
brief reign of Otho, and his contest with Vitellius. The cruelties 
and depredations committed on the coast of Italy by this fleet are de- 
scribed in lively colors by Tacitus (Hist., ii., 12, seq.). — Intemelios. 
" The Intemelii," i. e., the territory of the Intemelii. The name 
of the town itself was Albium Intemelium. Thus, Strabo remarks 
(iv., 6), tt6?uc evjueyidr]? "AXSiov 'IvrejueTiLov, Kai ol KaroLnovvreg 'Ivre- 
fiOuot. The attack, therefore, was on Intemelium and its vicinity, 
and was a consequence of the ill-planned measures of defence 
adopted by Marius Maturus, the procurator of Liguria, who had gone 
over from Otho to Vitellius. The modern name of Intemelium is 
Vintimiglia. 

Inpradiis suis. " On her own estates." — Causa. " The inciting 



148 NOTES ON THE AGRICOLA. CHAP. VII. 

cause." — Ad solennia pietatis. " To discharge the solemn duties 
of filial piety." — Affectati imperii. "Of the empire's being aimed 
at." Walch, less correctly, refers this to an actual seizure of the 
empire. (Consult Walther, ad loc.) — Ac statim in partes transgressus 
est. "And soon after went over to his party." The adverb statim 
here, like mox, modo, nuper, &c., elsewhere in Tacitus, must not be 
taken in too strict a sense. At least three months' must have 
elapsed between the death of his mother and his joining the party 
of Vespasian, as will appear from the following dates. Thus, Otho's 
death, after the battle of Bedriacum, took place in April, A.D. 69 
(Hist., ii., 55) ; Vitellius visited the battle-field forty days after the 
battle (Hist., ii., 70) ; and Vitellius's entry into Rome took place on 
the 18th of July (Hist., ii., 91). 

Initia principalis, &c. " The commencement of the new reign, 
and the welfare of the city, Mucianus directed." Observe here the 
peculiar force of statum, and compare Dial, de Or., 11 ; Ann., hi., 28. 
Vespasian was conducting the war against the revolted Jews with 
great success, when he was urged by Mucianus, then governor of 
Syria, and by his own son Titus, to assume the sovereignty ; and, 
during his stay at Alexandrea, he was proclaimed emperor by Ti- 
berius Alexander, the governor of Egypt. He forthwith prepared 
for war against Vitellius, leaving his son Titus to conduct the siege 
of Jerusalem. On the overthrow of the forces of Vitellius by An- 
tonius Primus, near Bedriacum, this latter commander marched to 
Rome at the end of December, A.D. 69, so that he first, in reality, 
had charge of affairs there ; but in the following January Mucianus 
arrived, and acquired all the power. (Hist., iv., 11.) 

Admodum juvene Domitiano. He was at that time eighteen years 
old. — Tantum licentiam usurpante. " Claiming only the privilege of 
indulging in licentiousness." Domitian became afterward one of 
the most ferocious and detestable of the Roman emperors. 

Missum ad delectus agendos. In the beginning of A.D. 70, Agric- 
ola set out for Britain, probably in the spring of the same year. — 
Integreque ac strenuc versatum. " And who had conducted himself 
in that employment with fidelity and vigor." — Vicesimce legioni, &c. 
The reason why, of the four legions posted in Britain (the second, 
ninth, fourteenth, and twentieth), the second only took the oath 
promptly, is given by Tacitus elsewhere (Hist., iii., 44). The twen- 
tieth legion was staying among the Cornavii, at Deva (now Chester). 
— Ubi deccssor seditiose agerc narrabatur. " (A station) in which his 
predecessor was reported to be acting seditiously." The individual 
here referred to was Roscius Coelius. For an account of the affair, 






NOTES ON THE AGRICOLA. CHAP. VII., VIII. 149 

consult Hist., i., 60. Vettius Bolanus was sent to supply the place 
of Trebellius, whom Coelius had forced to fly to Vitellius, at Lyons. 

Quippe legatis quoque consularibus, &c. " For this legion was un- 
manageable, and formidable even unto the consular lieutenants," 
i. e., even unto Trebellius Maximus and Vettius Bolanus. The le- 
gati consular es, in the time of the emperors, were individuals who 
had been consuls, and were governors of the province and com- 
manders over all the legions stationed in it. On the other hand, 
the legati prcetorii were those who had filled the office of praetor, and 
were in command of only a single legion. — Nimia. A very expres- 
sive term ; literally, " too much for." — Legatus pratorius. Roscius 
Coelius. {Hist., i., 60.) 

Incertum, suo an militum ingenio. Either because he did not know 
how to command, or they to obey. 



CHAPTER VIII. 

Dignum est. Some have proposed esset here instead of est ; but 
though this would do very well if it were merely a remark of Taci- 
tus, founded upon past events, est is equally well suited to the time 
in which Tacitus was writing ; for, after the death of Agricola, 
Britain, or at least Caledonia, had thrown off the yoke. (Hist., i., 
2.) The name of a second Calgacus, the Caledonian Arviragus, 
was renowned at Rome. (Juv., iv., 127.)— Ne incresceret. "That 
he might not grow too much into notice," i. e., become too con- 
spicuous, and appear to eclipse his commander. It is better to re- 
fer incresceret to Agricola than to ardorem, as some do. Ernesti 
correctly remarks that the words ne incresceret would form a pleo- 
nasm in the latter case. 

Brevi deinde 'Britannia, &c. In A.D. 71. Petilius Cerialis had 
before this been lieutenant of the ninth legion, under Suetonius 
Paulinus. (Ann., xiv., 32.) He was afterward one of the generals 
of Vespasian, to whom he was related (Hist., iii., 59), and was act- 
ively engaged in the seizure of Rome (lb., iii., 78, seq.). He was 
sent into Germany ; and, after the end of his campaign against Civ- 
ilis, was appointed to succeed Bolanus. (Hist., iv., 68, 71, 75, 78, 
86 ; v., 14, 21, 23.) — Spatium cxemplorum. "Room for displaying 
themselves as examples." 

Communicabat. "Shared with him," i. e., with Agricola. Sup- 
ply cum Mo. This verb does not appear to be used elsewhere by 
itself in this way. Thucydides (i., 39) employs KoivCdaavraq and 
uETadidovat in a similar manner. (Walch, ad loc.) — Ex eventu. 



150 NOTES ON THE AGRICOLA. CHAP. VIII., IX. 

" From the issue," i. e., in consequence of the successful termina- 
tion of some affair. Equivalent to " quum eventus id suasisset." 
(Hand, ad Tursell, ii., p. 659.) 

Nee Agricola umquam, &c. " Nor did Agricola ever exult in (such) 
exploits in order to increase his own renown." Observe here the 
peculiar construction of in with the accusative, and compare Liv., 
xxi., 43 : "In hanc tarn opimam mercedem, agite .... arma capite." 
Generally, in the older writers, when in or ad is used after a verb 
to express an object, a participle is subjoined. Others join in 
suam famam with factis. (Walch, ad loc.) — Ad auctorem et ducem, 
ut minister, &c. " He always, as a subordinate officer, gave the 
honor of his good fortune to the individual with whom his orders 
originated, and who was likewise his leader." — Nee extra gloriam 
erat. Observe that nee is here equivalent to nee tamen. The sense 
of the whole clause is simply this : " et invidiam effugiebat, et glo- 
riam assequebatur." (Dronke, ad loc.) 



CHAPTER IX. 

Revertentem ab legatione legionis. " On returning from the com- 
mand of the legion," i. e., the twentieth legion, in Britain. — Provin- 
cice Aquitanice. Gallia Comata comprised three provinces, Aquita- 
nia, Gallia Lugdunensis or Celtica, and Belgica. Aquitania was 
the tract between the Garonne, the Loire, the Pyrenees, and the 
Cevennes. It was annexed to the Roman Empire under Augustus. 
(Cas., B. G., i., 1 ; Ptol., ii., 7.) — Splendida in primis dignitatis, &c. 
" An office of the first distinction, on account of the importance of 
the command itself, and the hopes it gave of the consulship, to 
which he (Vespasian) had destined him." After destinarat, supply 
eum, a harsh ellipsis, however, as Walch correctly styles it. 

Snbtilitatem. " Acuteness." — Quia castrensis jurisdictio, &c. 
" Because the mode of administering justice in a camp, careless 
(respecting the niceties of law), and more blunt (in its character), 
and doing most things in an off-hand way, does not call into exer- 
cise the subtle distinctions of the bar." Observe here the employ- 
ment of the subjunctive mood, exerceat, as indicating the sentiments 
of others, not those of Tacitus himself. It is the same, therefore, 
as saying, "does not call into exercise, as they think." 

Agricola naturali prudentia, &c. " Agricola, (however), by dint 
of native sagacity, decided with easy promptness and with justice, 
though in the midst of civilians." Tacitus means that the summary 
and off-hand mode of deciding cases, to which Agricola had been 






NOTES ON THE AGRICOLA. CHAP. IX. 151 

accustomed in military life, did not at all interfere with his useful- 
ness as a judge when he came to preside in a civil tribunal. The 
allusion here is to the conventus juridici, or circuit courts (assizes), 
in which Agricola, as governor of the province, was now called to 
preside. (Gronov., Observ., hi., 22.) — Togatos. The term togati is 
here equivalent, in effect, to litigantes ; for suits could only be carried 
on in the toga, and in Latin. It does not mean lawyers or advo- 
cates alone, or citizens merely in opposition to soldiers. (Compare 
Walch, ad loc.) 

Jam vero. '" From this time, indeed." — Conventus. " The cir- 
cuits." In order to facilitate the administration of justice, a Roman 
province was divided into a number of districts or circuits, each of 
which was called conventus, forum, or jurisdictio. At these conventus 
litigant parties applied to the proconsul, or governor, who presided 
in them, and this officer selected a number of judges, from the per- 
sons assembled, to try their causes. The proconsul pronounced sen- 
tence according to the views of the judges, who were his assessors 
or counsel. (Diet. Ant., s. v.)— Officio. "The claims of official 
duty." — Nulla ultra potestatis persona. " There was no playing the 
part of the man in power after this." Observe here the figurative 
meaning of persona. Its literal signification is " a theatrical mask," 
whence it obtains the present sense of sustaining a character, or play- 
ing a part. — Tristitiam, et arrogantiam et avaritiam exuerat. " He 
had, (then), completely laid aside official sternness, and the rigid 
requirement of respect, and unflinching severity in exacting what 
was due to the state." By tristitia is here meant, not gloominess 
of disposition, nor asperity of manners, but the sternness which be- 
seems a magistrate and high public functionary. So, again, by ar- 
rogantia, as here employed, we are to understand, not the assump- 
tion of what does not belong to a person, but the rigid exaction of 
all the respect and attention to which he has a claim. The term 
avaritia has here its ordinary meaning. Agricola was not naturally 
avarus, any more than he was tristis or arrogans ; but he was 
obliged to comply with the commands of Vespasian, who was likely 
enough to replenish his exhausted coffers by exactions from this 
wealthy province. (Compare H ist., ii., 84; Suet., Vesp., 16.) Ava- 
rus was often equivalent to parum liberalis. So Cicero says, " Qui 
hoc fecit avarum possumus existimare, crimen in eo constituere non pos- 
sumus." (In Vcrr., iii., 16.) So that avaritia, in the present passage, 
implies the greatest severity in exacting tribute, or what was due 
to the state. Oberlin and others, misunderstanding the force of 
avaritia, as here emploved, give exuere the meaning of " to be en- 



152 NOTES ON THE AGRICOLA. CHAP. IX. 

tirely free from," and make the language of Tacitus have a general 
application to the character of Agrieola. There is no authority, how- 
ever, for such an interpretation, and, besides, it would clash with 
what comes after, namely, " integritatem atque abstinentiam in tanto 
viro referre, injuria virtutum fuerit." (Compare Walch, ad loc.) — Fa- 
cilitas. "Affability." 

Indulgent. " Court." — Per artem. By means of such arts as 
governors frequently employ to secure the good-will of their pro- 
vincial subjects. There is an allusion, perhaps, also, to addresses 
of thanks from the inhabitants of the province to the emperor, dur- 
ing and after the time of administration. (Compare Dio Cass., lvi., 
25 ; Ann., xv., 22.) — Collegas. Magistrates who were created at 
the same comitia, and, when these were no longer held, by the sen- 
ate and emperors, were called colleges. So in Hist., ii., 10, the col- 
leagues of Mucianus are the governors of Judaea, Cappadocia, and 
Egypt ; as, here, the colleagues of Agrieola are all the provincial 
prefects, especially those appointed over the Gallic and Spanish 
provinces. — Procurators. Each province had only one procurator 
at a time, and it does not seem that they were often changed ; so 
that this plural must imply disputes such as commonly arise be- 
tween governors and procurators. — Et vincere inglorium, et adteri 
sordidum arbitrabatur. " He thought that (in such disputes as these) 
both to conquer was attended with no glory, and to be worsted 
was a positive disgrace." Observe here the peculiar force of adteri, 
which answers thus to the Greek ehaaoovodai, and is used of any 
infringement upon a person's dignity, or the respect and attention 
to which he has a claim. 

Minus triennium. Supply quam after minus. (Zumpt, § 485.) — 
Ac statim ad spent consulatus revocatus est. " And was immediately 
thereafter recalled to the prospect of the consulship," i. e., with the 
prospect of obtaining the consulship. — Comitante opinione. " Bublic 
opinion accompanying him," i. e., while at the same time a popular 
opinion prevailed. Compare the Homeric kvSoc bn^del. (II. , xvii., 
251, &c.) — Nullis in hoc suis sermonibus. "No remarks having 
been made by himself to this effect." Observe that in hoc is here 
equivalent to ad id, and compare the Greek sic rovro. The con- 
struction in nullis sermonibus is the ablative absolute. — Par. " Equal 
to the station." 

Aliquando et elegit. " Sometimes it has even fixed a choice." 
There is a peculiar force here in elegit, and a blending, as it were, 
of the perfect and aorist, the tense not only indicating what some- 
times has been done, but also what is accustomed to be done. ( Walther, 



NOTES ON THE AGRICOLA. CHAP. IX., X. 153 

ad loc. — Ramshorn, L. G., $ 164, p. 401, b.) — Consul. "When con- 
sul." This was in A.D. 77, when Vespasianus Augustus for the 
eighth time, and Titus Caesar for the sixth, entered upon the con- 
sulate, and were succeeded on the 1st of July by Domitianus Caesar, 
then consul for the sixth time, and Cn. Julius Agricola. — Egregia 
turn speifiliam, &c. Agricola's daughter was almost fourteen. Ob- 
serve the force of turn, as referring to the hopes that were then form- 
ed of her, and that were subsequently realized. Tacitus was at this 
time in his 25th year. — Adjecto pontificatus sacerdotio. This never 
ceased to be reckoned a mark of distinction. 



CHAPTER X. 

Multis scriptoribus . As Caesar (B. G., iv., 21, seqq. ; v., 8, seqq., 
&c.), Pliny (H. N., iv., 16), Ptolemy (iii., 2), Diodorus Siculus (v., 
21, 22), Agathemerus (ii., 4), Strabo (ii., p. 116, 120, 128 ; iii., p. 
137, 195 ; iv., p. 199, 200), Livy (i., 105), Fabius Rusticus, Pompo- 
nius Mela, and others. — Non in comparationem curce ingeniive. " Not 
that a comparison may be instituted between my accuracy or talent, 
and that of others." Compare the explanation of Ernesti : " Non 
ea de causa, ut comparatio inde fiat met ingenii et aliorum." — Perdomita 
est. " Was it completely subdued." — Itaque. Equivalent to et ita. 
— Reram fide. " With fidelity of facts," i. e., from the evidence of 
actual discoveries. 

Spatio ac cozlo. " In situation and in climate." The old geogra- 
phers gave the northern coast of Spain a northwesterly direction ; 
and, unacquainted with the extent to which Bretagne reached west- 
ward, made the coasts of Gaul and Germany run in an almost uni- 
form northeasterly direction. Tacitus seems to have placed Britain 
in the angle thus formed. He means to say here that it is situated 
between nearly the same degrees, both of latitude and longitude, as 
those parts of the coast of Spain and Germany opposite to which it 
lies. He (chap, xxiv.) imagined Ireland to lie between Britain and 
Spain, though there is no reason to suppose that he placed it on the 
southwest of Britain. Compare Dio Cassius (xxxix., 50) : 'H de 
X&pa avrn anixei [*ev tt/c rjireipov ttjc KeXriKijc Kara Mcoplvovc cradL- 
ovc 'KEVTTjKovra Kal TETpaKOoiovc to avvrofiurarov • naprjKei 61 izapa 
T7]v ?iolk?]v Ta"kariav, Kal irapd rrjv 'ldnplav bXiyov naoav ee re to iri'K- 
ayoc dvaTecvovaa. (Compare Walch, ad loc.) 

In orient em Germanice, in occidentcm HispanicB. " On the east to- 
ward Germany, on the west toward Spain." Observe that Germa- 
nics and Hispania are datives depending on obtenditur. — Gallis in 

G2 



154 NOTES ON THE AGRICOLA. CHAP. X. 

meridiem etiam inspicitur. "It is even seen by the Gauls on the 
south." Compare the explanation of Dronke : u non solum obtend- 
itur, sed etiam inspicitur: inspicere autem est conspicere ; Hist., ii., 
6, * auditique saepius in Syria Judaeaque Caesares quam inspecti.' " — 
Nullis contra terris. Examples of ablatives absolute, used in this 
manner, are found in other writers besides Tacitus ; as, " Bonis 
tribunis plebis" (Cic, Phil., i., 10) : " Multorum eo statu, qui diutur- 
nus esse non posset" (Liv., xxxvi., 6). 

Livius. In his 105th book (now lost, but of which we have the 
Epitome), in which he gave an account of Julius Caesar's expedition 
into Britain. — Fabius Rusticus. A contemporary of Claudius and 
Nero, and a near friend of Seneca, more so than was consistent 
with the unbiased statement of truth, which should characterize the 
historian. (Ann., xiii., 20.) He wrote the history of his own times. 
Tacitus quotes him again in his history of Nero (xiv., 2 ; xv., 61). 
If his history extended over the reigns of Caligula and Nero, he prob- 
ably mentioned Britain when speaking of the expedition of Claud- 
ius ( A.D. 43). It does not seem that he commenced his history from 
the point where Livy left off, as has been imagined ; for Tacitus 
does not mention him in his earlier books. He could not have pub- 
lished his history before the death of Nero. (Consult Ann., xiv., 2.) 

OblongcB scutulce. " To an oblong four-sided figure." By scutula 
is properly meant a small four-sided dish, holding eight ounces of 
liquid. (Cato, R. R., 68.) It is then applied, figuratively, to denote 
any four-sided figure ; and on the present occasion, with the addi- 
tion of the epithet oblonga, designates what geometers call a trapezi- 
um. Compare the explanation of its shape as given by Censorinus : 
" Heteromeros quadrangulum, nee later a kabet paria, nee angulos rectos, 
simile scutellce." (De Die Nat., 18.) — Et est ea fades citra Caledoniam, 
&c. " And this is, in reality, its appearance, exclusive of Caledonia, 
and hence the popular report respecting its form has passed over (and 
been applied) unto the whole island." Fama is here the nomina- 
tive, and we must supply with it a genitive from fades. In univer- 
sum is equivalent to in universam Britanniam. The whole clause is 
paraphrased as follows by Walch : •' Fama ejus faciei, non in una 
parte Britannia constitit, sed in universam Britanniam transgressa est." 

Sed immensum et enorme, &c. " But an immense and boundless 
extent of land, and jutting out from that part where the coast now 
almost comes to an end, is gradually contracted, as it were, into 
the form of a wedge." Observe that the words extremo jam litore 
are not to be joined, by means of the figure called hyperbaton, with 
velut in cuneum tenuatur, but with terrarum procurrentium. In the 



NOTES ON THE AG1UC0LA. CHAP. X. 155 

words extreme jam litore Tacitus alludes to the narrow isthmus be- 
tween the Clota (Clyde) aud Bodotria (Forth), the southern bound- 
ary of Caledonia. Tacitus had formed a more correct notion of 
the shape of Britain than either Caesar, Strabo, or Ptolemy. 

Novissimi maris. " Of the farthest sea." — Tunc primum. Re- 
ferring to the time of Agricola. Compare Dio Cassius (lxvi., 20) : 
Tvaloc 'lov?aoc 'AypLKo?\,ac rravra Karedpafxe, nai irptiroc ye 'Pofialov 
kv la/iev eyvD rood', ore ?) Bperravca TzepippvTog eon. — Incognitas ad 
id tempus insulas, &c. According to Eusebius, Claudius had al- 
ready annexed these islands to his dominions ; and the same is said 
by Eutropius (vii., 13), Orosius (vii., 5), Bede (Hist. Angl.\ i., 3), 
Gildas, and others, and certainly a report of their existence had 
reached Rome by that time. Mela estimates their number at thirty, 
Pliny at forty ; so that incognitas must be here equivalent to levitcr 
or non penitus cognitas ; as it is in Cicero (de Orat., ii., 24), u causas 
dicunt incognitas." Ignotus has a similar force in the same writer 
(de Orat., i., 39) : " Jus applications obscurum sane ct ignotum, patef ac- 
tum atque illustratum est" (Compare de Orat., i., 42 ; Liv. y xxviii., 
44.) 

Dispecta est et Thide, &c. " Thule, also, was but just discerned 
in the distance, which snow and winter were accustomed hitherto 
to conceal from the view." Thule is variously identified by differ- 
ent authors with Mainland, Norway, and Iceland. The last is the 
most probable ; as the character and position of Iceland agree best 
with the description of the situation of Thule given by Strabo and 
Pliny. Observe that the verb dispici is used when speaking of any 
thing which can not be distinguished without difficulty. The text 
is doubtful in quam hactenus nix et hicms abdebat. We have given 
the reading which makes the best sense. Some editions have Di- 
specta est et Thule quadamtenus ; nix et hicms adpetebat, " Thule, also, 
was to some extent descried ; snow and winter were seeking to 
make it their own." Other variations have also been proposed, 
with regard to which, consult Walthcr, ad loc. 

Pigrum et grave remigantibus. " Sluggish and laborious to row- 
ers." It would appear that the first circumnavigators of Britain, 
m order, no doubt, to enhance the idea of their dangers and hard- 
ships, had represented the Northern Sea as in so thickened and 
half solid a state, that the oars could scarcely be worked, or the 
w r ater agitated by the winds. Tacitus, however, in what follows, 
rather chooses to explain its stagnant condition from the want of 
winds, and the difficulty of moving so great a body of waters. But 
the fact, taken either way, is erroneous ; as this sea is never ob- 



156 NOTES ON THE AGRICOLA.— CHAP. X., XI. 

served frozen, and is remarkably stormy and tempestuous. (Aikin, 
ad loc.) — Ne ventis quidem perinde attolli. " Is not even raised by 
the winds, as it is elsewhere." Observe the force of perinde, and 
compare Germ., 5 : " Posses sione et usu haud perinde adficiuntur." 

Rariores. " Are (here) of more rare occurrence/' — Et profunda 
moles continui maris, &e. " And the deep mass of one continued 
expanse of sea is more slowly set in motion." The expression 
continuum mare means the main sea, just as continens terra signifies 
the main land, or continent. 

Naturam oceani, &e. The ebb and flow of the tide in the North- 
ern Ocean was a matter of some astonishment to the Romans, as 
in the Mediterranean there is scarcely any tide at all. (Plin., H. 
N., xvi., 1.) — Multi retulere. As, for example, Pytheas of Massilia 
(ap. Pint. plac. Philos., iii., 17), Pliny (H. IV., ii., 97, 99), Seneca 
(Qucest. Nat., iii., 28), and Lucan {Phars., i., 409). 

Nusquam latius dominari mare, &c. " That the sea nowhere ex- 
ercises a more extensive dominion ; that it bears along many cur- 
rents in this direction and in that ; and that not as far as the shore 
merely does it increase or is it drawn back, but that it flows far in- 
land, and winds about, and insinuates itself even among hills and 
mountains, as if in its native bed," i. e., its ebbings and flowings 
are not confined to the shore, but it penetrates into the heart of the 
country, and works its way among hills and mountains, as in its 
native bed. (Aikin, ad loc.) The great number of friths and inlets 
of the sea, which almost cut through the northern parts of the island, 
as well as the height of the tides on the coast, render this language 
of Tacitus peculiarly proper. — Fluminum. Tacitus here refers to 
marine currents, which were known to the ancients, as we learn 
from Mela (iii , 3). — Velut in suo. Equivalent, in fact, to veluti jugis 
montibusque in suo. The ancients, as well as the moderns, taught 
that the bed of the sea, like the continent, contained valleys and 
mountains, the summits of which formed rocks and islands. {Plin.,, 
ii., 102; vi., 22.) 



CHAPTER XL 

Indigence. Caesar mentions that the inhabitants of the interior 
parts of the island were supposed to be of indigenous origin. (B. 
G., v., 12.) — Ut inter barbaros. " As (usual) among barbarians." 
Supply fieri solet. — Habitus corporum. " The characteristics of their 
frames," i. e., their physical appearance. — Atque ex eo argumenta. 
"And from this you may draw arguments (as to their origin)." 



NOTES ON THE AGRICOLA. CHAP. XI. 157 

Supply colligas. — Namque. There is the same difference between 
nam and namque as between enim and etenim, yap and nal yap. 
Namque may be frequently translated, as in the present passage, 
"thus, for instance." 

Rutila Calcdoniam habitantium coma, &c. Compare the descrip- 
tion given of the physical appearance of the Germans, in the Ger- 
mania, 4. — Silurum colorati vultus. " The swarthy complexions 
of the Silures." The Silures answer to the people of Wales. 
They occupied what are now the counties of Brecknock, Glamorgan, 
Monmouth, Hereford, and Radnor. Some commentators refer the 
expression colorati vultus to the staining of the face and body. This, 
however, was not a custom peculiar to the Silures, but common to 
all the Britons, and can not, therefore, be meant here ; on the con- 
trary, colorati refers to the dark complexion produced by the rays 
of the sun. Thus we have the expressions, Indi colorati, Seres col- 
orati, &c. — Torti. " Curly." The torti crines are what Brotier 
terms u les cheveux crepus" 

Proximi Gallis et similes sunt. " Those nearest the Gauls resem- 
ble, also, the inhabitants of that country." Literally, " are also like 
(them)." Of these, the inhabitants of the modern Kent are most 
favorably spoken of by Caesar : " Ex his omnibus longe sunt human- 
is simi, qui Cantium incolunt, qua regio est maritima omnis, neque mul- 
tum a Gallica differ unt consuetudine" (Cazs., B. G., v., 14.) 

Seu durante originis vi, &c. " Either because the influence of a 
common origin still remains, or because, the lands advancing till 
they lie opposite one another, climate has given this character to 
their frames," i. e , similarity of climate has given a similarity of 
character to their frames. With habitum supply eum. Tacitus 
means, that the coasts of the two countries, which at first run in 
different directions, gradually approach one another, till at the point 
where they end they lie opposite and parallel. Observe that di- 
ver sa is here used in the same sense as adversa. Compare Ann., 
xiii., 57; Hist., iii., 13, &c. — In universum tamen cestimanti. Com- 
pare Germ., 6. This use of the dative is exceedingly common in 
Greek. (Compare Herod., i., 14; v., 88. Thucyd., i., 10, &c.) 

Eorum sacra deprehendas, &c. " You may discover traces of their 
religious system in the firm belief (of the Britons) in certain super- 
stitions." Observe that eorum here refers to the Gauls, the people 
mentioned at the close of the previous sentence. The superstitious 
rites meant are particularly the mysterious and bloody solemnities 
of the Druids. From the language of Tacitus it would seem to 
follow that Druidism came into Britain from Gaul, and this, no doubt, 



158 NOTES ON THE AGRICOLA. CHAP. XI., XII. 

is the correct view of the matter. According to Caesar, however, 
the institution originated in Britain (B. G., vi., 13). The parent 
home of Druidism is now thought to have been the remote East. 
(Consult Barth, Ueber die Druiden der Kelten, p. 133, seqq.) — Super- 
stitionum persuasione. Equivalent to persuasione de super stitionibus . 
So persuasio falsa scientice (Quintil., i., 1, 8). Examples of a similar 
use of the ablative, without a participle to soften it, are found in 
"Non honore Galba" (Hist., i., 44): " Odio, metu" (Hist., i., 51): 
" Amove et fide" (Agric, 41). 

In deposcendis periculis, &c. This tallies precisely with Caesar's 
account of the Gauls. (B. G., in., 19.) — Plus ferocice. "More of 
martial spirit." Observe that ferocice is here equivalent to virtutis 
or fortitudinis. In chapter xxxi. virtus and ferocia are joined to- 
gether. So the adjective ferox does not mean " ferocious," but 
"proud and dauntless." (Compare Dronke, ad loc. ; Cort. ad Sail., 
Jug., c. 106.) 

Nam Gallos, &c. Compare Germ., 28. — Otio. " Repose from 
warfare," i. e., peace. — Quod Britannorum olim victis, &c. " Which 
has happened to those of the Britons who have been long subdued," 
i. e., the subjects of Cynobellinus, conquered by Claudius. (Walch, 
ad loc.) 



CHAPTER XII. 

Honestior auriga, clientes propugnant. " The more honorable in- 
dividual is charioteer ; his vassals fight for him," i.e., from the char- 
iot. Among the Greeks and Trojans the iqvioxoc was the less noble 
of the two. But compare Diod. Sic, v., 21, 29. — Olim regibus pa- 
rebant, &c. " Formerly they obeyed kings, now they are torn 
asunder by the nobles with parties and factions." — Nunc per princi- 
pes factionibus, &c. We have evidence of this in the frequency 
with which British princes, as Adminius, Bericus, &c., were com- 
pelled to take refuge among the Romans (c. 24). Observe that tra- 
huntur is for distrahuntur. — In commune non consulunt. Compare 
Germ., 33 : " Nihil jam prastare fortuna majus potest auam hostium 
discordiam." 

Rarus duabus tribusque civitatibus, &c. " An assembly of two or 
three states, for the purpose of repelling some common danger, is 
of rare occurrence." By conventus is here meant an assembly for 
the formation of plans touching their common interests. — Duabus 
tribusque. The substitution of ve for que, as introduced by Pichena 



NOTES ON THE AGRICOLA. CHAP. XII. 159 

and Acidalius, is unnecessary. So " spem metumque" (Hist., i., 62) ; 
" Capti ccesique" (Liv., xxiii., 1) ; " Quid faciendum fugiendumque 
sir (Cic, Off., I, 28) ; Ale kal rpic (Plat., Phadr., 235, A.), &c. 

Ccelum crebris imbribus, &c. A remark still fully applicable to the 
climate of Britain. Strabo says that the sun generally shone there 
only for a few hours, and that in the morning and evening it was 
hid in clouds or fogs. — Asperitas frigorum abest. Compare Cae- 
sar (B. G., v., 12) : " Loca sunt temperatiora quam in Gallia, remis- 
sioribus frigoribus." — Ultra nostri orbis mensuram. " Beyond the 
measure of those of our part of the world." For ultra mensuram 
dierum nostri orbis. Elliptical expressions of this kind are not un- 
common. Pliny says that in Italy the longest day lasts fifteen 
hours ; in Britain, seventeen. (H. N., ii., 75.) 

Quod si nubes non officiant, &c. " They say that provided, there- 
fore, clouds do not interpose, the brightness of the sun is seen dur- 
ing the night, and that it neither sets nor rises, but moves across 
the sky." If by fulgor solis we could understand the light arising 
from the refracted rays of the sun, this would be strictly true ; but 

the words nee occidere sed transire are hardly applicable to 

this, and must refer to the sun himself. The same idea occurs in 
Eumenius (Paneg. in Const., 9), " Ut sol ipse, qui nobis videtur oc- 
cidere, ibi appareat prater ire." 

Scilicet extrema et plana terrarum, &c. Consult notes on Germ., 
45. — Non erigunt tenebras. " Do not cast their shadow in a per- 
pendicular direction." — Prater. " With the exception of" — Patiens 
frugum. For a long time Britain was the granary for the Roman 
army on the Rhine. Zosimus (iii., 5) speaks of eight hundred ves- 
sels employed, by order of the Emperor Julian, in transporting corn 
to Germany. (Compare Amm. Marcell., xviii., 2, 3, and Vales., ad 
loc.) — Tarde mitescunt, &c. "They ripen slowly, they come forth 
quickly," i. e., growth is quick, but maturation slow. With mites- 
cunt and proveniunt the term fruges must be mentally supplied. — 
Cazli. "The atmosphere." Compare Pliny (H. N., ii., 38) : " Nam- 
que et hoc ccelum appellavere major es quod alio nomine air a, omne quod 
vitali simile vitalem hunc spiritum fundit ." 

Fert Britannia aurum, &c. Strabo (iv., p. 138) agrees with Tac- 
itus. Cicero, on the contrary, says, "Illud cognitum est, neque ar- 
genti scripulum esse ullum in ilia insula." (Ep. ad Att., iv., 16.) 
Cambden speaks of gold mines in Cumberland and Scotland, and of 
silver mines near Ilfracomb. — Gignit et oceanus margarita, &c. 
Pliny, speaking of the British pearls, says, " In Britannia parvos et de- 
color es nasci cerium est." (H. N., ix., 35.) Bede, on the contrary, 



160 NOTES ON THE AGRICOLA.— CHAP. XII., XIII. 

says, " In quibus sunt musculo, qvibus inclusam scepe margaritam omnis 
coloris quidem optimum inveniunt, i. e., Rubicundi et pur purely et hyacin- 
thini et prasini, sed maxime candidi" (Hist. Angl., i., 1.) The pearls 
which are found in Caernarvonshire, in the River Conway, and in 
Cumberland, in the River Irt, are equal to the best of those brought 
from the Indian Ocean ; but they are so few and small as not to re- 
pay the trouble of searching for them. 

Artem abesse legentibus. "That skill is wanting to those who 
gather them," i. e., skill in removing them from the rocks. Com- 
pare Pliny (H. N., ix., 35): " Altius mersce hcerent, nee nisi vi ac 
summo periculo avelluntur legentibus." — In rubro mari. " In the In- 
dian Ocean." Between Ceylon and Persia. The rubrum mare (rj 
'EpvOpa -&a?iaooa) of the ancients included both the sinus Persicus 
and the sinus Arabicus. Compare Pliny (H. N., vi., 23) : " Quod 
in duos dividitur sinus, Persicum ab oriente, et Arabicum ulterior em ex 
adverso." — Prout expulsa sint. " As they have been thrown up by the 
sea." — Naturam margaritis deesse. "That a proper nature is want- 
ing to the pearls (of this country)." By natura is here meant what 
the Greeks term ttocotvc Qvglkt}, that is, in the present instance, 
brilliancy and whiteness, which the Indian pearls possess. (Com- 
pare Walch, ad loc.) 



CHAPTER XIII. 

Ipsi Britanni. From an account of the island, he now proceeds 
to one of the inhabitants themselves. Compare a similar employ- 
ment of the pronoun ipse in the Germania, 2. — Impigre obeunt. 
" Cheerfully undergo." — Igitur. " For." This particle has here 
the force of enim, and is intended to be explanatory of what pre- 
cedes, namely, yam domiti ut pareant, &c. (Consult Hand, ad Tur- 
sellin., hi., p. 186, 187.) 

Britanniam ingressus. In B.C. 54 and 55. — Mox bella civilia. 
Supply fuere. — Principum. " Of the leaders." — Consilium id divus 
Augustus, &c. " This the deified Augustus called policy, Tibe- 
rius an injunction (of his predecessor)," i. e., of Augustus. Com- 
pare Ann., i., 77: "Augustus addiderat consilium coercendi intra 
terminos imperii." Strabo (ii., p. 115; iv., p. 200) assigns the rea- 
son for this conduct in relation to Britain. The Romans had 
nothing to fear from that island, nor would much advantage be de- 
rived from the possession of it ; and, at the same time, it could 
not be conquered and kept in subjection without considerable ex- 
pense. We must, besides this, also not overlook the friendly re- 



NOTES ON THE AGRICOLA. CHAP. XIII. 161 

lations which had been established meantime between Augustus 
and Tenuantius, the son of Cassivelaunus. Cynobellinus, the son 
of Tenuantius, was brought up at Rome, and accompanied Augus- 
tus in several campaigns. 

Agitasse C. Ccesarem de intranda Britannia, &c. " That Caius 
Caesar had meditated the design of invading Britain is quite certain ; 
(and he would have done so) had he not been precipitate in forming 
schemes, fickle in changing his mind, and had not his mighty at- 
tempts against Germany proved fruitless." (Consult Suet., Calig., 
46 ; Bio Cass., lix., 25.) This expedition was undertaken not from 
Gaul, but from the Batavian shores. The light-house, which Ca- 
ligula built, was at the second mouth of the Rhine, now choked 
with sand, where the remains of it still exist, and are called by 
sailors the Calla-Thurm. — Ni velox ingenio, &c. Observe the ellip- 
tical form of the sentence, where we must supply et intrasset, or 
something equivalent. There is an ellipsis, also, of fuisset alter velox 
ingenio and mobilis poznitentia. — Ingentes adversus Germaniam, &c. 
Consult note on Germ., 37. 

Auctor ojpcris. "Was the one that carried these designs into 
effect." Literally, "was the author of the work." A British refu- 
gee, named Bericus, advised Claudius not to miss the opportunity 
of subduing Britain. For an account of the successes of Claudius, 
or, rather, of A. Plautius and Vespasian, in A.D. 43, consult Hist. y 
iii., 44 ; Suet., Claud., 17 ; Dio Cass., lx., 19, seqq. — In partem rerum. 
"To share in the undertaking." 

Domitcz gentes. Only the Boduni are mentioned by Dio ; but his 
account is imperfect. As only Cynobellinus's sons, Caractacus and 
Togodumnus, appeared in the field against Plautius and Vespasian ; 
and, after the capture of Camalodunum, the war was considered as 
completed ; it appears probable that most of the tribes south of the 
Thames and Severn were under the dominion of Cynobellinus. — 
Capti reges. Who these were we do not know. Bede says the 
country was divided among twenty-five petty kings. 

Monstratus fatis. " Was pointed out by the fates." As this ex- 
pedition laid the foundation of Vespasian's subsequent elevation to 
the throne, by the fame which he thereby acquired of a successful 
commander, it may well be said that the fates now began to give 
indications of his future career. Observe that fatis is here in the 
ablative without a, instances of which construction are not unfre- 
quently found. Compare Liv. (v., 15): " Interpres fatis oblatus ;" 
and Hor. (Od., i., 6, 1) : " Cura fatis data." We can not regard fatis 
in the present passage as the dative, since a person could hardly be 



162 NOTES ON THE AGRICOLA. CHAP. XIV. 

said to be commended to the favor of the fates, who, as Seneca 
(Quast. Nat., 35) says, " Aliter jus suum peragunt, nee ulla commo- 
ventur prece, non mis ericordia fleet untur, non gratia. Servant cur sum 
irrevocabilem, et ex destinato fluunt." 



CHAPTER XIV. 

Aulas Plautius. He was the consular legatus during the years 
A.U.C. 796-800. (Consult Ann., xiii., 32 ; Bio Cass., lx., 19.)— 
Propositus. " Was placed over the island." The full form of ex- 
pression would be propositus est insulcz. — Subinde Ostorius Scapula. 
During the years A.U.C. 800-803. For an account of his contests 
with the Silures under Caractacus, consult Ann., xii., 31, seqq. 
Though he penetrated to the Irish Sea, and Caractacus was de- 
livered up by Cartismandua, the queen of the Brigantes, he did not 
subdue the Silures. Oyster Hill, near Hereford, the site of a Roman 
camp, received its name from him. 

Proxima pars insulce. " The part of the island nearest us," i. e., 
nearest Italy and Rome. How much of the southern part of the 
island is included in this can not be determined.— Addita insuper ve~ 
teranorum colonia. This was at Camalodunum (Colchester), the res- 
idence of Cynobellinus. Camalodunum means " the city of Mars," 
Camalus among the Britons answering to Mars. It was called Co- 
lonia victrix, and was chosen for the station of the fourteenth legion 
(Legio gemina Martia victrix). Compare Ann., xii., 32 ; and, as re- 
gards the modern name of Camalodunum, which some erroneously 
make to be not Colchester, but Maiden, consult Quarterly Journal of 
Science for 1822, No. 23. — Qucedam civitates Cogiduno, &c. " Cer- 
tain districts were presented to King Cogidunus." Cogidunus is 
not mentioned elsewhere. He was, perhaps, a vassal of the sons 
of Cynobellinus. 

Vetere ac jam pridem recepta, &c. " According to the old and 
long-since established custom of the Roman people, to have even 
kings as the instruments of slavery." Compare Livy (xliv., 24) : 
"Pop. Rom. regum viribus reges oppugnare. Attalo adjutore patrem 
suum opprcssum. Eumene adjuvante Antiochum superatum.'''' 

Mox Didius Gallus, &c. Consult Ann., xii., 40, and xiv., 29. 
The British insurrection under Boadicea happened in A.U.C. 814, 
and Suetonius's arrival in 812. Veranius was legatus for somewhat 
less than a year, in 811. Accordingly, Didius held the command 
during the years 804-810. — In ulteriora. Apparently in the territory 
of the Silures. — Fama audi officii. " The credit of having extended 



NOTES ON THE AGRICOLA. CHAP. XIV., XV. 163 

the bounds of his administration," i. e., of having enlarged his prov- 
ince. The term qfficium, as Walch remarks, is used in the same 
sense by Caesar (B. G., iii., 5) : " Toti tamen officio maritimo Bibulus 
propositus." Compare Dig. de Off. Proc., 4 : " Si quid uxores eorum, 
qui ad officia proficiscuntur, deliquerunt." — Veranius. This com- 
mander made some incursions into the territory of the Silures, and 
would no doubt have pushed his conquests further, had he not been 
cut off by a premature death. Consult Ann., ii.. 56, 74 : iii., 10, 13, 
17, 19 ; xii., 5. 

Suetonius hinc Paulinus, &c. " From this time Suetonius Pauli- 
nus enjoyed prosperous fortune for two years, in the subjection of 
tribes and the establishment of garrisons." We must be careful 
not to translate "after the rebellious tribes had been subdued," as 
some do. The past participle has a similar force in Ann., xvi., 21 : 
" Nero virtutem ipsam exscindere concupivit, inter fecto Thrasea P&to" 
equivalent to interficiendo Thrasea Pato, "Nero wished to destroy 
virtue itself by killing Paetus. " Compare Ann., iv., 34 : " Cremu- 
tius Cordus postulatur novo ac turn primum audito crimine, quod editis 
annalibus, laudatoque M. Bruto Caium, Cassium Romanorum ultimum 
dixisset." 

Monam insulam aggressus. The Mona of Tacitus is now the Isle 
of Anglesea, whereas the Mona of Caesar is the Isle of Man. A 
trace of the name Mona still remains in that of the Menai strait. 
The Mona of Tacitus was the chief seat of the Druidical religion in 
Britain, and was, on this account, attacked by Paulinus, who wish- 
ed to put an end, by these means, to the influence exercised by the 
Druid priesthood over the minds of the Britons, in stirring them up 
to opposition against the Romans. Paulinus took the island, and 
destroyed the groves in which human sacrifices were accustomed 
to be offered. For a spirited sketch of the affair, consult Ann., xiv., 
30. — Vires. "Forces." Tacitus says that the island was power- 
ful in its inhabitants (incolis validam). — Terga occasioni patefecit. 
"Laid open to a surprise the settlements behind him." Tacitus 
alludes to the revolt of the Britons under Boadicea, of which an 
account is given in Ann., xiv., 31, as well as in the two following 
chapters of the present w T ork. 



CHAPTER XV. 

Interpretando. " By commenting upon them." — Ex facili. "Eas- 
ily." This expression has been formed after the model of such 
phrases as ex inopinato, ex insperato, ex abundanti (Quint., iv., 5, 15); 



164 NOTES ON THE AGRICOLA. CHAP. XV. 

ex affluenti (Hist., I, 57), &c. The same idiom occurs in Greek , as, 
etc rod kfMpavioc (Herod., iii., 150) ; kl~ aeTnzrcdv (Soph., Aj., 715), &e. 
— Singulos sibi olim, &c. " That formerly they had only one king 
for each nation." Observe the force of singulos, one for each na- 
tion ; not merely one king, which would be unum regem. — Sceviret. 
Observe the employment of the subjunctive, as indicating the sen- 
timents of the speaker, not those of the writer. — Mque discordiam 
prapositorum, &c. " That in an equal degree did the discord of 
those placed over them, in an equal degree did their union prove de- 
structive to those subjected to their sway." Observe here the em- 
ployment of ceque .... ceque. So we have pariter . . . .pariter in Ovid 
(Met., xii., 36): " Et pariter Phoebus, pariter maris ira recessit." 
The use of atque in such phrases as aliud atque arose from the 
omission of one aliud, which occurred in the fuller and original form 
of the expression, aliud hoc atque aliud illud. 

Alterius manus, &c. " That the officials of the one, the centuri- 
ons of the other, mingled violence and insults," i. e., treated them 
with mingled violence and insult. The first alterius refers to the 
procurator, and by manus are meant his under- officers and attend- 
ants; the second alterius refers to the legatus. We have given 
here the reading suggested by Gronovius (Diatrib. in Stat., p. 264), 
and which appears to great advantage by the side of the strange 
emendations which different editors have proposed. The whole 
question is fully discussed in Walch's note. 

In prozlio fortiorem esse qui spoliet. "That in battle it is the 
braver man who de-spoils." Observe, again, the employment of the 
subjunctive in spoliet, as indicating the sentiments of the speaker, 
not of the writer. — Tamquam mori tantum, &c. "As if they were 
ignorant only how to die for their native land." Compare the anal- 
ogous Greek construction of 6c with the absolute case of the par- 
ticiple. 

Quantum. " How mere a handful." One of the MSS. has quan- 
tulum, the correction of some copyist who was ignorant that is, talis, 
tantus, quantus, and the like, are employed to express diminution as 
often as enlargement. (Walch, ad loc.) The infinitive is the more 

usual construction in sentences of this kind ; as, " quantum 

profici (Hist., iii., 70) ; " Quid dicturos" (lb., iii., 13). But the sub- 
junctive may be used ; as, " cur petisset" (Hist., iii., 70). — Sic Ger- 
manias excussisse jugum. By the overthrow of Varus, and tho 
slaughter of his legions. The plural form Germanias has reference 
to the subdivision of the country into Upper and Lower Germany. 
(Compare notes on Germ., c. i.) — Et flumine, non oceano, defendi. 



NOTES ON THE AGRICOLA. CHAP. XV., XVI. 165 

" And yet were defended by a mere river, not, like themselves, by 
the ocean." Observe that et has here the force of " and yet." So 
nee for nee tamen, in chap. viii. Compare Livy (xxv., 25) ■ "Nom- 
ina partium urbis, et instar urbium sunt ; n and, again (i., 37) : " Mon- 
ies effuso cursu Sabini petebant, et pauci tenucre." 

Divus Julius. This expression seems rather strange in the mouth 
of a barbarian ; but the Roman writers were not so scrupulously 
exact in such matters as modern criticism requires. — Recessisset. 
The subjunctive again, to express the sentiments and assertion of 
the speaker merely. — Qui detinerent. " Since they detained." Ob- 
serve that qui here takes the subjunctive, because the clause in 
which it stands contains the reason of what precedes. (Zumpt, 
§ 564.) 

Quod difficillimum fuerit. "What has ever been most difficult." 
Compare chap. xii. : " In commune non consulunt" Observe, again, 
the employment of the subjunctive to express the sentiments, &c, 
of the speaker. — Porro. "In fine." Analogous, in some respect, 
to denique. (Watch, ad loc.) — Audere. "To dare to put them into 
execution." 



CHAPTER XVI. 

Boadicea. This name is variously spelt, Boudicea, Boodicea, or 
Boadicea. The last form has most authority in its favor. Dio Cas- 
sius gives BowdovtKa. She was the wife of Prasutagus, king of the 
Iceni, a tribe inhabiting the eastern coast of Britain. The story of 
her wrongs is related in Ann., xiv., 31. — Sumsere helium. So Ann., 
ii., 45; and " prozlium sumsere^ (Hist., ii., 42). Compare the 
Greek, nolefiov ijpavro (Thucyd., iii., 39). — Expugnatis prcesidiis. 
Camalodunum was taken and destroyed by fire. Londinium was 
also taken, and Verulamium soon after experienced a similar fate. 
In these places nearly seventy thousand Romans and R.oman allies 
were slain with cruel tortures. — Nee ullum in barbaris, &c. " Nor 
did anger and the license of victory omit any kind of cruelty usual 
among barbarians." It is errcreous to regard ira et victoria here as 
a mere hendiadys. The expression is meant to be a far more forci- 
ble one. Compare the remarks of Botticher, p. xlvi. 

Quod nisi Paulinus, &c> " Had not Paulinus, therefore," &c— 
Quam unius prcelii fortuna, &c. " The fortune of a single battle, 
however, reduced it to its ancient subjection ; although many still 
remained in arms, whom the consciousness of revolt and dread of 
the legate more nearly affected." Suetonius saw that a battle 



166 NOTES ON THE AGRICOLA. CHAP. XVI. 

could no longer be deferred. His forces consisted of only about ten 
thousand men, while those of the Britons under Boadicea are said 
to have amounted to two hundred and thirty thousand. On the day 
of the battle the queen rode in a chariot with her two daughters 
before her, and commanded her army in person. She harangued 
her soldiers, reminded them of the wrongs inflicted upon Britain by 
the Romans, and roused their courage against the common enemy. 
But the Britons were conquered by the greater military skill and 
the favorable position of the Romans. About eighty thousand Brit- 
ons are said to have fallen on that day, and the Romans to have 
lost no more than 400. Boadicea would not survive this irrepara- 
ble calamity, and put an end to her life by poison. This victory 
finally established the Roman dominion in Britain. (Ann., xiv., 
31-37; Bio Cass., lxii., 1-12.) 

Burius. " With too much severity. " — Petronius Turpilianus. 
Sent A.U.C. 815. He was put to death by Galba. {Hist., L, 6, 37.) 
From this time forward, Britain, as far as Anglesea, may be consid- 
ered as under the Roman dominion. — Delictis hostium novus, &c. 
" New to the offences of the enemy, and on that account milder 
to their repentance," i. e., unacquainted personally with the ex- 
cesses of which the foe had been guilty, and therefore more disposed 
to treat them mildly on their repenting. Compare "novus dolori" 
(Sil. Ital., vi., 254) : "firmus advcrsis" (Agric., 35). — Compositis 
prioribus. " After the former disturbances had been allayed." — 
Trebcllio Maximo provinciam tradidit. When is uncertain : probably 
in A.D. 64. Trebellius's flight took place in A.D. 69. {Hist., i., 
60; ii., 55.) 

Nullis experimentis. For nulla experientia. — Comitate quadam cu- 
randi. "By a certain courtesy in governing." Curare is not un- 
frequently used by Sallust and Tacitus in the sense of " governing," 
" administering," " commanding." Thus, " Is in ea parte curabat." 
(Sail., Jug., 60) : " Qui proconsul Asiam curaverat" (Ann., iv., 36). — 
Vitiis Uandientibus . " Through the seductive influence of our 
vices," i. e., through the seductive charms of luxury. Literally, 
" our vices coaxing them (into this state of feeling)." — Et interven- 
es civilium armorum, &c. Namely, in order that the empire might 
not be harassed by foreign wars at the same time that it was torn 
by intestine convulsions. 

Sed discordia laboratum. "Danger, however, was incurred by 
mutiny." The noun labor is used in this same sense. Compare 
Tibull, i., 1,3: " Quern labor assiduus vicino terreat hoste.'''' Hovoc 
and ttovelv are similarly employed in Greek. (Consult Gottleber., ad 



NOTES ON THE AGRICOLA. CHAP. XVI., XVII. 167 

Thucyd., ii., 49) — Lasciviret. "Began to grow insubordinate." — 
Precario mox prcefuit. " Commanded after this by a precarious 
authority." (Consult note on "precario jure parendi," Germ., 44.) 
— Prcefuit. Supply exercitui. — Ac velut pacti, exercitus licentiam, &c. 
"And, as if they had stipulated, the army for unbridled freedom, 
the general for safety, this sedition was unaccompanied by blood- 
shed." We have adopted here the punctuation of Walther, which 
appears to afford the best sense. Walch and others place a colon 
after salutem, and make pacti stand for pacti sunt, " And they, as it 
were, stipulated," &c. This, however, brings in the succeeding 
clause too abruptly. According to our pointing, pacti is for pacti 
essent. 

Yet tins Bolanus. Consult chapter viii. This governor arrived 
in Britain between April and May, A.D. 69. During his adminis- 
tration the circumstances happened which are recounted by Tacitus, 
in Hist., iii., 45. — Eadcm inertia. Statins, then, must be charged 
with flattery in addressing Crispinus, the son of Bolanus. (Site., 
v., 2, 53, seqq., 142, scqq.) — Nullis delictis invisus. "Hated for no 
crimes." Compare, for a similar usage, Ann., vi., 42 : " Trccenti 
opibus aut sapientia delccti. 1 ' — Caritatem paraverat loco auctoritatis. 
" Had procured for himself affection in lieu of authority," i. e., had 
made himself loved rather than feared. 



CHAPTER XVII. 

Et Britanniam recipcravit. "Recovered Britain also," i. e., re- 
stored it to the benefits of a firm and wise administration of affairs 
at Rome. Vespasian placed the Roman world once more upon a 
firm basis, after it had been shaken to its centre by the civil con- 
test between Otho and Vitellius. (Dronke, ad Joe.) — Rcciperavit. 
The earlier form of rccuperarit, and which we have given with the 
best editors. (Consult Gronov. and Drake nb., ad Liv., 7, IS.) — Magni 
duces, egregii exercitus, &c. " Our generals (in that island) were 
men of great abilities, our armies were excellent, the confidence of 
the foe was lessened." Supply fuere in the first and second clauses, 
and fuit in the third. 

Petilius Cerialis. Already mentioned in chapter viii. — Brigan- 
tum. The Brigantes inhabited what are now the counties of York, 
Westmoreland, Durham, and Lancaster. — Aut victoria amplexus, &c. 
Observe that victoria amplecti is "to subdue," but bello amplecti "to 
overrun." — Et cum Cerialis quidem, &c. " Although Cerialis, in- 
deed, might have obscured the care and fame of another successor, 

t 



168 NOTES ON THE AGRICOLA. CHAP. XVII., XVIII. 

yet Julius Frontinus also sustained the burden," i. e., discharged 
with ability the duties of his office. Observe that obruisset here 
merely indicates possibility, and is equivalent to obruere potuisset. 
The subjunctive has not unfrequently a pregnant sense, involving 
posse, velle, opus esse. The reason why Tacitus expressed himself 
on this occasion so cautiously may probably be owing to the fact 
that Frontinus was still alive. In Hist., iv., 71 ; v., 21, he uses 
greater freedom. — Alterius. The term alter, although it is com- 
monly synonymous with erepoc, sometimes stands for erepoc rtc, and 
is even equivalent to uXkoc occasionally. Compare chapter v. : 
" Consilio ductuque alterius." 

Quantum licebat. " As far as was permitted," i. e., as far as was 
permitted by the times in which he lived, when to appear eminent 
was dangerous ; and it was dangerous, especially for the governor 
of so important a province, even in the time of Vespasian. Fronti- 
nus lived till A.D. 106, and was an augur at the time of his death. 
He was the author of a work upon the art of war (Strata gematica), 
and of another upon the aqueducts of Rome, the superintendence 
of which was intrusted to him during the reigns of Nerva and Tra- 
jan. — Validamque et pugnacem Silurum gentem. Since the victories 
of Suetonius Paulinus, from about A.D. 62 to 75, we hear nothing 
of the struggles with the Silures. But that the subjection of these 
wild mountain tribes had not yet been accomplished, is shown not 
only by Frontinus's expedition, but by Agricola's enterprise against 
Mona. 



CHAPTER XVIII. 

Hunc BritannicE statum, &c. " Found this condition of Britain, 
these vicissitudes of warlike operations," i. e., found Britain in this 
state, as resulting from the fluctuating fortune of the contests which 
have just been mentioned. Observe that vices here marks a result, 
not what was passing at the time. — Media jam cestate. This was in 
A.D. 78. — Cum et milites, velut, &c. " When both our own soldiers, 
as if all onward movements had been given over, w T ere addressing 
themselves to enjoyments free from care, and the enemy to the 
seizure of the opportunity thus offered them." Observe the middle 
sense of verterentur, and with regard to omissa expeditione compare 
the explanation of Walch : " als ware die Ueberwdltigung der Insel 
aujgegeben" 

Ordovicum civitas. The Ordovices inhabited the counties of Flint, 
Denbigh, Caernarvon, Merioneth, and Montgomery. — Alam infinibus 



NOTES ON THE AGMCOLA. CHAP. XVIII. 169 

suis agentem, &c. " Had destroyed almost to a man the troop of 
horse acting within their confines." The ala was the body of cav- 
alry belonging to the legion, in number generally about three hun- 
dred. Agentem marks that there was a fixed camp. The period 
between the departure of Frontinus and the arrival of Agricola, 
when the island was without a governor, probably afforded the op- 
portunity for this occurrence. 

Eoque initio erecta prGvincia, &c. " And by this beginning the 
inhabitants of the province being thrown into a state of anxious sus- 
pense, inasmuch as a war was what they wished for, either approved 
of the example, or waited to learn the feelings of the new governor,'' 
i. e., or withheld their determination till they had ascertained his 
feelings. The meaning is, that some did the one, and some the 
other. Ut qui generally, and always in Livy, is joined with the 
subjunctive mood ; but sometimes with the indicative. Observe, 
moreover, the imitation of the Greek idiom in ut quibus helium volen- 
tibus erat, where the regular Latin form of expression would have 
been ut qui bellum volebant, and compare Kuhner, G. G., § 599, 3, ed. 
J elf. So we have in Sallust (Jug., 84), " Neque plebi militia volenti 
putabatur ;" and (c. 100), " Uii militibus excequatus cum imperatore 
labos volentibus esset ;" and, again, in Livy (xxi., 50), " Quibusdam 
volentibus novas res fore ." 

Numeri. " The forces." The term numerus is here employed in 
its military sense, a meaning which appears to have come in during 
the reign of Augustus. It is well explained by Torrentius (ad Suet., 
Vesp., 6) : " Est militare vocabulum non solum pro catalogo scu bre- 
viculo militum, quam etiam matriculam vocant, sed. pro ordinibus ipsis 
turmisque et cohortibus militum.^ Walch renders it here "the co- 
horts," but this appears too limited, the reference being rather to va- 
rious subdivisions and bodies of troops. Botticher, therefore, trans- 
lates, more correctly, "die Truppcnabtheilungen." — Prcesumta apud 
militem, &c. " Inaction for that year was anticipated among the 
soldiery." — Tarda et contraria bellum inchoaturo. " Circumstances 
which delay and thwart one who purposes to commence war." 
This must be taken as a parenthesis independent of quamquam. — 
Custrdiri suspecta. " That the suspected parts of the country should 
be watched merely," i. e., those parts where the inhabitants were 
suspected of an intention to throw off the Roman yoke. 

Contractisque legionum vexillis. " And having drawn together the 
veterans of the legions." Observe that vexillis is here for vexillariis. 
On comparing all the passages where the vexillarii and vexilla legio- 
num are mentioned, it will be found that we are to understand by 

H 



170 NOTES ON THE AGRICOLA. CHAP. XVIII. 

these terms those veterans who, since the time of Augustus, after 
serving sixteen campaigns, were released from their military oath, 
but were retained till their complete discharge under a flag (vexillum) 
by themselves, free from all other military duties, except to render 
assistance in the more severe battles, to guard the frontiers of the 
empire, and keep in subjection provinces that had been newly con- 
quered, and were, therefore, more disposed to revolt. There were 
vexillarii attached to each legion, and it would appear (Ann., iii., 21) 
that they amounted in number to five hundred. When there was 
any necessity, they were detached from their legions, and some- 
times, as in the present instance, were all united into one body. 
Consult Walch's elaborate note on this subject. 

In cequum. "Into the plain." — Erexit aciem. "Led his force in 
battle array up toward the mountains." Compare Dronke, " Eri- 
gere aciem est in arduum versus montem ducere." So Livy (i., 27), 
" Inde, ubi satis subisse ratus est, erigit totam aciem" — Instandum 
famce. "That renown must be followed up." — Cessissent. For 
processissent. So ^wpeZV, for rrpoxupstv, in Herodotus (v., 49). — C«- 
jus possessione revocatum. Observe the omission of the preposition 
a, and compare Germ., 14 : " Exigunt liberalitate principis." 

Ut in dubiis consiliis. "As in the case of plans, the issue of 
which is doubtful." The meaning appears to be, that Agricola had 
had some intention of invading Mona previous to his campaign 
against the Ordovices ; but, as the result of that campaign was 
doubtful, he had not provided vessels ; and he had not had time to 
do so after the conquest of the Ordovices, when he had fully de- 
termined to invade the island. Examples of the passive meaning 
of dubius frequently occur. Thus, Suet., Aug., 17 : " M. Antonii so- 
cietatem semper dubiam et incertam abrupit tandem." — Ratio et constan- 
tia ducis transvexit. " The ability and resolution of the general 
transported his forces across." 

Lectissimos auxiliarium. Virdung supposes these auxiliaries to 
have been Germans, especially Batavians, and refers, in support of 
his opinion, to Hist., v., 14, where the Germans are spoken of as 
" fluminibus suetos," and to Mela, iii., 3, &c. But others, with more 
probability, think that they were Britons, since the Batavians could 
not be acquainted with the shallows between Britain and Mona. 
Eighteen years before, Suetonius Paulinus had sent his cavalry 
across the straits in the same way. (Ann., xiv., 29.) — Quibus nota 
vada, &c. "To whom the fords were known, and the practice of 
swimming was the peculiar one of their country." Compare, as 
regards the force of patrius here, the remarks of Boetticher, Lex 



NOTES ON THE AGRICOLA. CHAP. XVIII., XIX. 171 

Tac, s. v. Paternus et Patrius, p. 344. — Qui classem, qui naves, 
&c. " Who expected a (Roman) fleet, who expected ships, who 
expected the (difficulties of the) sea," i. e., the difficulties which 
would be opposed to the progress of the Romans by the intervening 
straits. (Compare Botticher, Remarks, &c, p. xlii.)— Nihil arduum 
aut invictum. "Nothing arduous or insuperable." Observe the 
employment of invictum, a perfect participle passive, in place of a 
neuter adjective in He. This is one of the peculiarities of the style 
of Tacitus. (Compare Botticher, Remarks, p. xl.) 

Officiorum ambit um. " Efforts to procure the homage and flattery 
of the inhabitants." Compare Ulpian : "Antequam fines promncia 
decretcB sibi proconsul ingressus sit, edictum debet de adventu suo mittere, 
continens commendationem aliquam sui, si qua ei familiar it as sit cumpro- 
vincialibus, vel conjunctio, et maxime excusantis, ne publice, ne privatim 
ei occurrant ; esse enim congruens, ut unusquisque eum in sua patria 
exciperet." (Ulp. in Dig. de Off., Proc. et Leg., i., tit. 16, s. iv., § 3.) 

Nee Agricola, usus prosperitate rerum, &c. "Neither did Agricola, 
having used prosperity of affairs for purposes of mere vanity, call 
the having curbed those already conquered an expedition or a vic- 
tory. He did not even follow up his achievements with laureled let- 
ters." According to the Roman custom, after any decisive battle 
had been won, or a province subdued by a series of successful oper- 
ations, the successful general forwarded to Rome a laurel-wreathed 
dispatch containing an account of his exploits. The laurel (i. e., 
bay) was considered by the Romans the peculiar emblem of victory. 
With laureatis supply Uteris. The full form is given by Livy (xlv., 
1) : " Literce a Postumio laureates, sequuntur, victoriam Populi Romani 
esse." 

JEstimantibus . "Men considering." Ablative absolute, and an 
imitation of a well-known Greek idiom. (Consult Wopkens, in AcL 
Traj., ii., p. 118.) 



CHAPTER XIX. 

Animorum provincice prudens. " Being well aware of the tone of 
feeling in the province."— Per aliena experimenta. " By the expe- 
rience of others." More closely, " By the trials which others had 
made." — Excidere. "To eradicate." — Domum suam. "His own 
household." Domus is here used in a wider sense than in chapter 
xlvi., and means his suite (military family) and attendants. 

Nihil per libertos servosque, &c. "He transacted no public busi- 
ness through freedmen or slaves." Supply agere, in the sense of 



172 NOTES ON THE AGRICOLA.— CHAP. XIX. 

agebat. This omission of the verb agere or facere is not unfrequent. 
Compare Ann., i., 43 : " Melius et amantius Me, qui ferrum mihi obtu- 
lit," scil. agebat; and iv., 38: "Melius Augustum qui speraverit," 
scil. egisse, &e. — Non milites adscire. " He promoted no recruits (to 
the ranks of the legion)." Tacitus is speaking here not of levying 
soldiers, but of the promotion of recruits to the honor of serving in 
the legion through private favor (studiis privatis), or on the recom- 
mendation of the centurions. The term milites in its full force be- 
longed only to the legionary troops. The tirones thought much of 
the honor of serving in the legion, and frequently importuned the 
centurions for this promotion. The prudence of Agricola, according- 
ly, provided against what occurred in after times, as we learn from 
Vegetius : " Lcgionum nomen in exercitu permanet hodieque, sed per 
■negligentiam superiorum temporum robur infr actum est, cum virtutis 
pramia occuparet ambitio, et per gratiam promoverentur milites, qui 
promoveri consuerant per laborem." (Veget., iii., 3.) 

Sed optimum quemque, &c. " But he thought each best man the 
most faithful." Observe that optimus is here, in fact, equivalent to 
fortissimus. Compare Sallust {Jug-, 98) : " Optimus quisque cadere." 
— Omnia scire, non omnia exsequi. " He knew all things, he did not 
punish all." Observe that exsequi, in the sense of ulcisci, is found 
not only in writers of this age, but in Livy, iii., 25, and v., 11. This 
meaning is deduced naturally enough from the literal signification 
of "to follow out." 

Commodare. " He applied." There is no need, as Walther cor- 
rectly remarks, of regarding this, with Walch, as an instance of 
zeugma. The meaning we have here given to the verb, and which 
is closely allied to its literal one, will suit equally well both veniam 
and sevcritatem. — Nee poena semper, sed scepius, &c. " Nor was he 
satisfied (only) with punishment always, but more frequently with 
repentance." There is no need whatever of our supplying uti with 
poena, as Ernesti does. Cicero has supplicio contentus {in Verr., 
ii., 37), and we need not object, therefore, to poena contentus in the 
present instance. 

Frumenti et tributorum auctionem, &c. " He mitigated the in- 
crease of the supply of corn and of the taxes by an equalizing of 
burdens," i. e., he took care that all the inhabitants should be rated 
fairly, according to their property ; that the poor might not have to 
contribute more than the rich. In the term tributa Tacitus refers 
to poll-taxes and taxes upon property. These were increased, and, 
in some cases, doubled by Vespasian. (Suet., Vesp., 16.) Munus 
is the portion which each had to contribute. — Circumcisis qua ix 



NOTES ON THE AGRICOLA. CHAP. XIX. 173 

quizstum reperta, &c. " All those exactions having been abolished, 
which, devised for private gain, were endured more grievously than 
the taxes themselves," i. e., were more grievous to be endured, &c. 
The meaning is, that Agricola put an end to all those devices for 
enriching themselves which had been practiced by the inferior of- 
ficers of government, and were esteemed heavier burdens than the 
taxes themselves. 

Namque per ludibrium assidere clausis horreis, &c. " For they 
were compelled, in mockery, to sit by the closed granaries, and to 
buy, besides, their own corn, and to sell it out again at a (small) 
fixed price." The meaning of this passage has been very generally 
misunderstood. The explanation which we here give from Walch 
will be found, on examination, to be decidedly the true one. From 
the provinces, at least during the times of the republic, and from 
Sicily, the Romans procured corn in three different ways ■ namely, 
by means of the frumentum decumanum, emtum, and astimatum. 
(Consult Cic. in Verr., Act. ii., lib. iii., 6-98.) The frumentum de- 
cumanum was the tenth part of the produce of the ager publicus or 
decumanus. It was exacted from the cultivators without payment 
(Asconius, ad Cic, Verr., p. 29), and had to be carried down to the 
sea (Cic. in Verr., iii., 14); but was generally purchased or con- 
tracted for by the revenue-farmers, who were thence called decu- 
mam, and who either sent it to Rome or sold it in the provinces. 
The emtum frumentum was corn which was furnished in compli- 
ance with the orders of the proconsul, to supply the wants of the 
armies or of the capital, and for which a fixed price was paid, at 
first from the public treasury, and afterward from that of the emper- 
or. When the governor of the province was in league with the 
decumani, the latter, by means of such edicts as those mentioned by 
Cicero (in Verr., ii., 3, 13, 14), got all the corn in the country into 
their power, as in the case of the Britons alluded to in the text, 
who were compelled to purchase it back from the Romans at a high 
price, both for their own consumption, and in order to furnish the 
emtum frumentum, for which they were paid only the small fixed 
price. By horreis, therefore, in the text, are meant the public or 
Roman granaries, and not, as some most erroneously think, the 
private ones of individuals. With regard to ultro, observe that it 
has here the force ofinsuper, or amplius, and consult Bot ticker, Lex. 
Tac, s. v. 

Devortia itinerum, &c. " By-roads and distant parts of the coun- 
try were appointed," i. e., as the quarters unto which the corn was 
to be carried. Here Tacitus refers to the frumentum cestimatum, as 



174 NOTES ON THE AGRICOLA.— CHAP. XIX., XX. 

it was called. The provincial magistrates had money given them 
from the treasury, or from the emperor's purse, for the purpose of 
buying corn for their own use, at a valuation fixed by the senate 
(HS. iv., for a modius of wheat, HS. ii., for one of barley), which 
was to be carried to whatever place they chose. They might either 
exact the corn, or else a certain sum for that and for the expense 
of its conveyance. Now corrupt and fraudulent magistrates always 
appointed some place at a great distance, and away from the com- 
mon route, unto which the corn was to be conveyed, and then com- 
muted in money with the farmer, at a heavy loss to the latter and 
great profit to themselves. (Ascon. in Verr., 29.) That frauds of 
this kind were practiced down to the latest period, under the emper- 
ors, is seen from a prohibition of Valerian's on the subject. 

Deferrent. Supply frumenta.—Quod omnibus in promtu erat. 
"What offered itself in abundance to all." — Faucis. The procura- 
tor of the province and his officials. 



CHAPTER XX. 

Hczc comprimendo. " By suppressing these abuses." — Egregiam 
famam paci circumdedit. " He threw around peace an excellent 
reputation," i. e., he established a very favorable idea of peace. 
Compare the Greek idiom : izepiridivat nvi drijutav {Time, vi., 89) ; 
and, again, aioxvvaic ttjv noTav irepiSaTielv (Isocr., Archid., 318). — 
Qua. The antecedent is pax. They were despoiled and oppressed 
in peace just as much as in war, and therefore the former was no 
less dreaded than the latter. — Tolerantia. " Connivance." More 
literally, "sufferance," i. e., suffering oppression to be exercised, 
and secretly sharing in the spoils. We have given here tolerantia, 
the emendation of Rhenanus, and far superior to intolerantia (" op- 
pression"), the MS. reading. The former is adopted, also, by Bro- 
tier, Ernesti, Oberlin, Walch, I. Bekker, &c. 

Sed ubi cestas advenit, &c. During this summer Agricola seems 
to have penetrated to the Solway Frith. That he did not proceed 
further appears from the subsequent chapters. In chap, xxii., the 
expression Tertius expeditionum annus novas gentes aperuit would 
hardly have been used if he had already penetrated as far as Edin- 
burgh, as some imagine, in the second summer. It was the west- 
ern portion of the Brigantes whom he now subdued, and, accord- 
ingly, the conquests of Cerialis lay in the eastern part of their 
country. They were only partially subdued by the latter (chapter 
xvii.) ; and his successor, Frontinus, seems not to have completed 



NOTES ON THE AGRICOLA. CHAP. XX. 175 

his undertakings. — Militum in agmine, &c. Some editors read mul- 
tum, others multus. Both of these, however, are too abrupt here, 
though multus is better, in point of Latinity, than multum. — Disjec- 
tos coercere. " He restrained the stragglers." 

Loca castris ipse capcre. Many traces of these encampments still 
remain ; two in particular, situated in Annandale, called Burnswork 
and Middleby, are described by Gordon (Itin. Sept., p. 16, 18). — 
JEstuaria. u The estuaries." The term astuarium is used to de- 
note the wide mouths of rivers, which are fordable or very shallow 
at low water, but resemble arms of the sea at high tide. Such, on 
the western coast, are those of the Dec, the Mersey, the Ribhle, 
Morecambe Bay, and Solway Frith. — Et nihil interim apud hostes, &c. 
" And in the mean time suffered nothing (to be so far) quiet among 
the enemy, as that he should not ravage (their country) by sudden 
excursions," i. e., and in the mean time perpetually disquieted 
and harassed the enemy by sudden excursions. The expression 
subitis excursihis implies that there were towns or intrenchments 
at hand, from which these sallies were made. — Irritamenta pacis. 
'•Incentives to peace." (Compare Hist., ii., 62 : " Irritamenta gulce") 

Ex cequo egcrant. " Had' acted on an equality (with the Romans)." 
The expression ex cequo, being a somewhat general one, must, of 
course, derive its particular shade of meaning from the context. 
Here it implies that they had maintained their ground, and preserved 
their liberty against the encroachments of the Roman power. — Et 
prcBsidiis castellisque circumdatce, &c. " And were surrounded with 
garrisons and forts, (disposed) with so much judgment and attention, 
that no part of Britain new (to us) before could fall away without 
being (at the instant) attacked," i. e., could pass over to the foe un- 
hindered. Observe that transient has here the force of transire po- 
tuerit. The true meaning of this passage is extremely doubtful. 
We have given the explanation of Walther, as the most satisfactory. 



CHAPTER XXI. 
Sequens hiems. This was in A.D. 78-80. — Saluberrimis consiliis. 
" In most wholesome measures." — In bella faciles . " Prone to war." 
■ — Ut templa, fora, domus exstrucrent. Julius's hoff, or house (the 
house of Julius Agricola), and Arthur's oven, in Stirling, near the 
mouth of the Carron, are said to have been built under the direc- 
tion of Agricola. As we soon afterward find Eboracum an import- 
ant city, the residence of the British governor, and sometimes of 
the emperor himself, it is not unlikely that Agricola founded this 



176 NOTES ON THE AGRICOLA.— CHAP. XXI., XXII. 

city about this time in the country of the Brigantes, to promote the 
civilization of this wild tribe. — Ita honoris amulatio 'pro necessitate 
erat. " In this way an honorable rivalry supplied the place of com- 
pulsion," i. e., in this way he produced a spirit of honorable rivalry, 
which had all the force of compulsion. 

Jam vero principum, &c. The same line of policy was pursued 
by Augustus (Suet., Aug., 48) and by other Roman emperors {Ann., 
ii., 2; xi., 16; xii., 10). Perhaps Agricola established schools, as 
Caligula did in Gaul and Belgium. — Et ingenia Britannorum, &c. 
" And he gave the preference to the natural talents of the Britons, 
rather than to the laborious efforts exerted by the Gauls." Some, 
less correctly, suppose that anteferre here means " to cause to ex- 
cel." Gauls frequently found their way to Britain, and ingratiated 
themselves with the princes of the country, to the exclusion of the 
more talented but less cultivated natives. 

TJt qui modo linguam Romanam, &c. " So that they who lately 
refused to make use of the Roman language began to desire its el- 
oquence," i. e., were now ambitious of becoming eloquent in it. In 
their communications with the governor, and in judicial proceed- 
ings, the Britons would be required to use the Latin tongue. — Habi- 
tus nostri honor. " Our mode of dress began to be held in honor." 
Supply erat. — Delinimenta vitiorum. " The blandishments of vicious 
pleasures." — Humanitas. "Refinement." — Cum pars servitutis es- 
set. " When, in reality, it constituted a part of their slavery." 



CHAPTER XXII. 

Tertius annus. The time meant is A.D. 80. — Novas gentes. 
Those, namely, between the Solway Frith and the Frith of Tay, 
in Annandale, Clydesdale, Tweeddale, Berwick, Lothian, Stirling, 
Menteith, Perth, and Fife, through which ran a Roman road. — 
Taum. Not the Tweed, which does not form an estuary, but the 
Tay. Cerialis had before this penetrated to the Tweed. — Conflicta- 
tum. " Having to struggle with." — Castellis. The remains of some 
of these are still to be seen between Ardoch and Innerpeffery. The 
principal one was at Ardoch, and so situated as to command the 
entrance into two valleys, Strathallen and Strathern, thus illustra- 
ting the remark made immediately after this by Tacitus, respecting 
the skill displayed by Agricola in choosing advantageous situations 
for his forts. Consult Pennant's Tour in Scotland, pt. ii., p. 101, 
where a description and plan of the remains of this last-mentioned 
fortress are given. — Aut pactione acfuga desertum. " Or was aban- 



NOTES ON THE AGRICOLA. CHAP. XXII., XXIII. 177 

doned through capitulation and flight." Oberlin's edition has aut 
fuga by a typographical error, which is repeated, however, by 
Weikert, Naudet, and Weise. 

Nam adversus moras obsidio?iis, &c. " For they were secured 
against a lengthened siege by supplies of provisions for a whole 
year." Literally, " against the delays of a siege." Some, less cor- 
rectly, refer annuls copiis to supplies of fresh troops. — Intrepida. 
" Passed without alarm." Supply erat. — Irritis. "Being baffled." 
— Pensare. " To make up for." The simple verb for the compound 
" compensare." — Juxta pellebantur. " Were alike pressed hard." 

Per alios gcsta avidus inter cepit. " Greedily intercept (the glory 
of) things achieved by others," i. e., with a greedy desire of distinc- 
tion. Observe that avidus here has, by a poetic usage, the force of 
an adverb, and compare Zumpt, § 682. — Seu centurio seu prafectus, 
&c. " Whether it were a centurion or a commander of a legion, he 
had (in Agricola) an impartial witness of what had been done," i. e., 
of his achievement. Supply esset after centurio. 

Accrbior in conviciis. " Somewhat harsh in his reproaches," i. e., 
in reproof, when reproving any one. — Injucundus. " Austere." — 
Secretum et silentium ejus. " His reserve and silence," i. e., his re- 
served and silent manner. — Odisse. "To cherish secret hatred." 






CHAPTER XXIII. 

Quarta cestas. A.D. 81. — Obtincndis qua per curr erat. " In se- 
curing the country which he had overrun." Supply loca. Observe 
that obtinco is used here in its common signification of "to hold 
against another," " to secure the possession of," &c. Compare the 
remark of Gronovius : " Obtinere est perscverare in tenendo, quod 
Galli dicunt maintenir." — Pateretur. " Had allowed." — Inventus in 
ipsa Britannia terminus. "A limit (to our conquests) would have 
been found in Britain itself," i. c, within that part of the island de- 
scribed immediately after as lying to the south of the Friths of Clyde 
and Forth. Here ancient Britannia ended and Caledonia began. 
It was in this same quarter that the rampart of Antoninus was sub- 
sequently erected by Lollius Urbicus, the imperial legate. 

Clota et Bodotria, &c. "The estuaries of Clota and Bodotria, 
carried back deep into the land by the tides of opposite seas." The 
reference is, as already remarked, to the Frith of Clyde and the Frith 
of Forth. — Revectce. Observe that re has not unfrequently the force 
here assigned it in composition ; as in repostus, "placed far back." 
Compare, also, Horace's reducta vallis (Epod., ii., 11.) 
H2 



178 NOTES ON THE AGRICOLA.— CHAP. XXIII., XXIV. 

Atque omnis propior sinus lenebatur. " And the whole bend of 
the coast, in the more immediate neighborhood (of the isthmus) 
was (likewise) occupied (with forts)." As regards the force of si- 
nus here, consult notes on Germ., i. The chain of forts across the 
isthmus was sufficient to prevent any irruption of the enemy by 
land ; while, to check their attempts by sea, in which way the Picts 
made their incursions in later times, Agricola had fortresses built 
east and west in the adjacent region, which were united with the main 
chain. It is this adjacent region, to the east and west of the isth- 
mus, that Tacitus means to indicate by the expression "propior si- 
nus." The work now called Graham's Dike was erected by Lollius 
under the Antonines, but coincided with Agricola's line, which ran 
from Old Kirk-Patrick on the Frith of Clyde, to Abercorn on the 
Frith of Forth. 



CHAPTER XXIV. 

Quinto anno. A.D. 82. — Nave prima transgressus. " Having 
crossed over in the first ship," i. e., having crossed the estuary of 
the Clota in the first Roman fleet that had ventured narrowly to 
examine this part of the coast. We have here given what appears 
to be the true explanation of this much-contested clause, and most 
in unison with the expression ignotas ad id tempus gentes, immedi- 
ately following. Agricola might have marched his forces through 
the isthmus without having recourse to ships, but probably the ap- 
pearance of a fleet would be more calculated to strike terror into 
the nations along the coast. 

Eamque partem Britannia, &c. The reference is to Carrick, 
Galloway, Wight, and perhaps, also, to Argyle, Annan, and Bute. — 
Copiis. "With troops." — In spem magis, quam ob formidinem. 
"With the hope rather (of future conquests) than from any appre- 
hension (of attack)," i. e., more because he hoped at some future 
time to achieve the conquest of Ireland, than because he dreaded 
any interruption from that quarter. — Medio inter Britanniam, &c. 
(Compare chapter x.) — Opportuna. "Lying commodiously." — Va- 
lentissimam imperii partem, &c. "Might unite the most powerful 
portion of our empire by great mutual advantages," i. e., might form 
a very beneficial connection between the most powerful parts of 
our empire, namely, Britain, Gaul, and Spain, by means of commer- 
cial transactions, and an interchange of their respective products. 
— Miscuerit. In Greek we should have had dv with the optative. 

Nostri maris. The Mediterranean. — Ingenia cultusque. "The 



NOTES ON THE AGRICOLA. CHAP. XXIV., XXV. 179 

intellectual character, and the usages." — Aditus portusque. "The 
approaches to its coasts and its harbors." A great deal of useless 
trouble has been taken by commentators with the sentence of which 
these words form part. The reading which we have given is the 
simplest and best. — Unum ex regulis. " One of the petty kings." — 
Scepe ex eo audivi. Some take eo to mean this petty king, and ac- 
cordingly conclude that Tacitus was at this time in Britain. But 
there can be little doubt that it refers to Agricola. 



CHAPTER XXV. 

JEstate, qua sextum, &c. A.T>. 83. — Officii. " Of his govern- 
ment." — Amplexus civitates trans Bodotriam sitas. " Having em- 
braced (in his plans) the states situated beyond the Bodotria." The 
reference is to the eastern parts of Scotland, north of the Frith of 
Forth, where are now the counties of Fife, Kinross, Perth, Angus, 
&c. With regard to amplexus, as here employed, observe that the 
fuller and more Augustan form of expression would have been 
" Civitates ad subigendum animo et cogitatione complexus ." — Infesta. 
"Infested by." Observe that infesta has here a passive sense, and 
compare Cic., de Prov. Cons., 2: "Via barbarorum excursionibus in- 
festa." A much inferior reading is infesta hostilis exercitus, &c, 
where infesta must have an active force. 

Portus classc exploravit. Agricola's plan was, apparently, that the 
fleet should support the army, which probably kept near the coast ; 
and, if the latter met with too powerful an opposition at any of the 
passes, should land troops in the rear of the enemy. — In partem vi- 
rium. " As a part of his forces." Virium is here equivalent to 
copiarum. — Egregia specie. "With imposing display." — Impeller e- 
tur. "Was urged on." The simple verb pellere is, properly, "to 
put in motion ;" hence the force of impeller e here. Comparing 
11 Sive casus res humanas sine or dine impelliV (Sen., Ep., 16), and 
" Placidum cequor millc navium remis strepere aut velis impelli" {Ann., 
ii., 23), no difficulty need be raised at the expression impeller e bel- 
lum. 

Mixti copiis et Icetitia. " Mingled together in forces and in joy," 
i. e., mingled together in joyous groups. Compare the German 
version of Strombeck, " in freudigen Schaaren gemischt ;" and also 
that of Botticher, u fr6hlich in buntem Gemisch." Some comment- 
ators refer copiis here to the camp-stores of provisions. If this 
idea be adopted, the meaning will be, " mingled together at abund- 
ant and joyous messes ;" this mode of interpreting, however, is far 



180 NOTES ON THE AGRICOLA. CHAP. XXV., XXVI. 

less natural, and less in accordance with the context. — Attollerent. 
In the sense of extollerent. (Consult Ernesti, ad Ann., xv., 30). — 
Adversa. "The hardships." — Victus oceanus. We have adopted 
here the emendation of Lipsius. The common reading is auctus 
oceanus, "the ocean swelled by tempests." But victus oceanus is 
far more spirited, and is more in unison with militari jactantia im- 
"mediately following. Compare, also, " Domitus oceanus" (Suet., 
Claud., 17), and " Spolia oceani" (Suet., Cal., 46). 

Ad manus et arma. " To action and to arms." — Paratu magno, 
majore fama, &c. "With great preparation, with the still greater 
fame (as is usual with reports concerning what is unknown) that 
they had commenced hostilities," i. e., with great preparations, but 
augmented by the report (as is usual where the truth is unknown) 
of having commenced hostilities. The infinitive oppugnasse de- 
pends on fama, as Walch correctly remarks ; and, according to this 
same commentator, the meaning of the passage is the same as if 
Tacitus had written Magisque id fama celehrante " en oppugnarunt 
Britanni ultro Romana castella," — Castella. Some forts in Fife, 
Perth, and Strathern, the remains of which still exist ; manifestly, 
from what follows, not the line jof fortifications between the Friths 
of Clyde and Forth. 

Et excedendum potius quam pellerentur. The alteration of potius 
to, prius (as proposed by Gronovius) is unnecessary. Compare 
Plant. Aul., i., 1, 11 : " Utinam me divi adaxint ad suspendium, Po- 
tius quidem, quam hoc pacto apud te serviam;" and Liv., xxxiv., 25, 
" Hortatusque conjuratos, qui aderant, ut potius quam extorti moreren- 
tur afma secum caperent" — Specie prudentium., "With the air of 
prudent advisers," i. e., under the mask of prudence. — Hostes pluvi- 
ous agminibus irrupturos. " That the enemy intended to bear down 
upon him in several bodies." 



CHAPTER XXVI. 
Universi nonam legionem, &c. Brotier, following Gordon (It. 
Sept., p. 32), places the scene of this occurrence in Fife, where the 
remains of a Roman camp are found at Lochore. We must not 
suppose, however, that all the remains of Roman intrenchments in 
this part are to be referred to the time of Agricola ; many were 
built under the Antonines and Severus. After a careful examina- 
tion of the whole subject, Walch comes to the conclusion that the 
ninth legion, which the enemy, altering their plan, fell upon with 
their whole force, must have been posted further northward than 



NOTES ON THE AGRICOLA. CHAP. XXVI., XXVII. 181 

Fife, in Angus, or perhaps Mar. If Agricola had been in the dis- 
trict of Fife, which is hardly eight miles broad, he would probably 
have immediately sought the enemy at the intrenchments. 

Assultare. "To charge." — Propinqua luce. "At daybreak." — 
Ancipiti malo. The battle in front and rear. — Securi pro salute, de 
gloria ccrtabant. " At ease respecting their safety, they (now) con- 
tended for glory." Ernesti and other modern editors have changed 
the reading in the text, which is that of the old editions and the 
Vatican MS., into Securi de salute pro gloria ccrtabant. This, how- 
ever, is unnecessary. Compare *< Numquam apud vos verba feci, aut 
pro vobis sollicitior, aut pro me securior." {Hist., iv , bS.) — Ultro quin 
etiam irrupere. " They (now), moreover, of their own accord rushed 
upon the foe." — Utroque exercitu. Tne two divisions of the Roman 
forces, namely, the ninth legion in the camp, and the troops that 
had come to their aid. — Debellatum foret. "The war would have 
been ended." 



CHAPTER XXVII. 

Cujus constantia ac fama ferox exercitus. " The army elated by 
the intrepidity and fame of this achievement." Observe that cujus 
refers back to victoria in the previous chapter. We have given to 
the words constantia ac fama their plain and natural signification. 
Walch makes them a hendiadys for constanti fama, " enduring (i. 
e., wide-spread) fame," but without any necessity. Lipsius, on the 
other hand, conjectured conscientia ac fama, a reading actually found 
afterward in one of the MSS., and which Ernesti, Dronke, and oth- 
ers have adopted. This, however, as Walther correctly remarks, 
wants spirit. There is a great deal of truth in the observation of 
Dureau de Lamalle : " Constantia victoria est une magninque ex- 
pression, qu'il faut bien se garder d'afTaiblir. Le style doit avoir 
ici autant d'audace que la victoire en donnait au soldat." — Invium. 
" Inaccessible." — Continue cursu. " By one continued career." 
Atque illi modo cauti, &c. Compare chap. xxv. : " Regrediendumque 

ignavi admoncbant.'" — Iniquissima hcec bellorum conditio est. 

" Such is ever the very unfair condition of warlike operations." 
Observe that est is here the present aorist, and hac elegantly em- 
ployed for talis. — At Britanni non virtute, sed occasione, &c. " The 
Britons, however, thinking that it had not been brought about by 
valor, but merely by a fortunate concurrence of circumstances, and 
by the skill of the commander," i. e., that their defeat was not ow- 
ing to the valor of the Roman troops, but to mere chance and the 



182 NOTES ON THE AGRICOLA. CHAP. XXVII., XXVIII. 

skill of Agrieola. After rati supply fuisse. Commentators gener- 
ally think that there is something corrupt in this sentence, and pro- 
pose various corrections, such as arte duels se victos rati, or, non ut 
virtute, sed arte duels superatl, &c. There is no need, however, of 
any alteration. The sentence is merely an elliptical one, in full 
accordance with the wonted conciseness of Tacitus, and the simple 
mode of supplying the ellipsis, which we have adopted, will remove 
every difficulty. 

Quo minus armarent. " But armed." Literally, "so as not to 
arm." — Atque ita Irrltatls discessum. " And thus the parties sepa- 
rated with imbittered feelings on both sides." 



CHAPTER XXVIII. 

Conors Usiplorum. Compare Germ., 32. The doubt which sug- 
gests itself as to the means by which the Romans could levy sol- 
diers at this time among the Germans, when it was not till the 
reign of Trajan that the Roman power was re-established on the 
right bank of the Rhine, is removed by the fact that many tribes in 
this part were, even at this time, dependent allies of the Romans. 
This cohort was most probably part of the forces stationed by Agrie- 
ola in Kintyre, Carrick, and Galloway. From Dio Cassius (lxvi., 
20), it appears that the course of this circumnavigation was from 
west to east, that is, they set out from the western side of the isl- 
and, and coasting along all that part of Scotland, abounding in in- 
tricate and dangerous navigation, passed round by the north. — Mag- 
num ac memorablle f acinus ausa est. " Performed a very daring and 
memorable enterprise." 

Exemplum et rectores habebantur. " Served as a pattern and (at 
the same time) as controllers of their conduct." Compare De La- 
malle : " qui, falts pour leur servlr de modele, avaient sur eux une sortc 
d? autorlte" — Tres llburnicas. Consult notes on Germ., 9. — Ascen- 
dcre. "To go on board." — Et uno remigrante. "And one of the 
number having escaped." Literally, " having gone back." Ob- 
serve that the present participles of intransitive verbs are frequent- 
ly to be taken as if they were perfect participles. Thus, descendens 
(Veil. Pat., ii., 25) ;descendentl (Liv., xxi., 32) ; revertentem (Agrlc., 
9), &c. We have given remigrante here, with the old editions. The 
reading remlgante, which Lallemand, Oberlin, and some others adopt, 
from one of the MSS., is, as Walch correctly remarks, neither Latin 
nor sense. The Latin idiom requires gubernante, since we say of a 
pilot, navem gubernarc, not remigare ; and then, again, the words 



NOTES ON THE AGRICOLA. CHAP. XXVIII. 183 

uno remiga?ite stand in almost direct contradiction to amissis per in- 
scitiam regendi navibus. 

Nondum vulgato rumor e. " The report of the affair not having as 
yet been noised abroad," i. e., the report of their mutiny and flight. — 
Ut miraculum prcevehebantur. " They were carried along (the coast) 
as a kind of prodigy." Observe that prcevehebantur is equivalent 
here to prcetervehebantur, and compare prcevehitur (Ann., ii., 6). The 
inhabitants of the islands and shores on the west of Britain, along 
which the Usipii sailed, were astonished at the wonderful sight, 
and regarded it in the light of a prodigy. — Hac atque ilia rapti. 
" Driven about in this direction and in that." Compare the lan- 
guage of Dio Cassius, in speaking of the same circumstance : "&c 
nov to re KVfia nal 6 avepoc avrovg etpepe (lxvi., 20). 

Eo ad extremum inopice. venere. " They came at last to that de- 
gree of destitution." — Infirmissimos. Strict classical usage would 
require the ablative after vescerentur. (Zumpt, § 466.) — Mox sorte 
ductos. " And then upon those that were drawn by lot," i. e., and 
after they had fed on the weakest, then on those of their number 
that chanced to draw the fatal lot. — Atque ita circumvecli Britan- 
niam. After they had reached the northern extremity of Scotland, 
they passed through the Pentland Frith toward the east, sustain- 
ing new encounters with the inhabitants of Caithness, Sutherland, 
Murray, Buchan, &c. Dio mentions that they nearly lighted upon 
the Roman camp ; nal flaBov ek rod km -ddrepa npoc ra GrparoTzeda 
ra Tavry bvra Tzpoqaxovrec. (Dio., I. c.) 

Amissis per inscitiarn, &c. It is possible, though not necessary, 
to suppose that these Usipii were forced by stress of weather into 
the Baltic Sea. The name Suevi was borne by many tribes (Germ., 
38), and there is no reason why we may not suppose that it was 
the appellation of some of those (Germ., 40), which we find in the 
region afterward possessed by the Saxons and Angles. It is diffi- 
cult to determine how, after being intercepted by the Suevi, the 
Usipii fell into the hands of the Frisii. We must suppose that, 
either when attempting to reach their native country by land, or 
endeavoring to work their way round on the wrecks of their vessels, 
they were intercepted by some Suevi, and these, in turn, captured 
by some Frisian pirates. That piracy in these quarters was of very 
ancient origin is proved by the example of Gannascus (Ann., xi., 
18). — In nostram ripam. The left bank of the Rhine. — Indicium 
tanti casus illustravit. " The proof (thus afforded) of so extraordi- 
nary an adventure made objects of notoriety." 



184 NOTES ON THE AGRICOLA.-— CHAP. XXIX. 



CHAPTER XXIX. 

Initio astatis. This is the commencement of a new summer, 
A.D. 84. The expression eadem testate (chap, xxviii.) shows that 
Tacitus had finished his regular account of Agricola's proceedings 
during the previous year, and that the narrative of the adventures 
of the Usipii is to be looked upon as a kind of supplement. Some 
editors, however, supply septimce, which, when abbreviated into VII., 
might be absorbed by the letters VIT at the close of the last chap- 
ter. — Neque ambitiose tulit. " He neither endured with an ostenta- 
tious firmness," i. e., he did not affect a stoical indifference in order 
to excite the admiration of others. — Rursus. " On the other hand." 
Observe that rursus has here the force of contra, and consult Bdtti- 
cher, Lex. Tac, s. v., p. 415. — Et in luetic, &c. Observe that et has 
here the force ofsed. (Consult Bdtticher, Lex. Tac, s.v.,§v., p. 178.) 

Quce. "In order that it." — Magnum et incertum terrorem. "An 
extensive and dubious alarm," i. e., in many and various places. — 
Longa pace exploratos. " Approved by a long allegiance." By pace 
is meant a peaceful submission to the Roman sway. — Ad montem 
Grampium pervenit. In the ancient Scottish tongue this ridge was 
called Grantzbain, now the Grampian Hills. It runs from Dumbar- 
ton to Aberdeenshire. In Strathern, about half a mile south of the 
Kirk of Comerie, is a valley nearly a mile broad, and some miles 
long, through which the Erne and Ruchel flow. Here are the re- 
mains of two Roman camps, with a double wall and trench, one 
large enough to contain the eight thousand men which Agricola led 
to battle, the other smaller, and suited for the three thousand caval- 
ry. Two miles southeast is a third camp, in which two legions might 
be conveniently quartered. They were, perhaps, posted here by 
Agricola, that he might keep up a communication with the fleet. 
The place itself still bears the name of Galgachan Rossmoor, taken 
from that of the Caledonian leader. 

Cruda ac viridis senectus. " A hale and vigorous old age." Com- 
pare Virgil {Mn., vi., 304) : " Sed cruda deo viridisque senectus. " 
So in Greek, couov yypac, and to/Lio-yepuv. — Ac sua quisque decora ges- 
(antes. " And bearing each their honorary decorations," i. e., the 
trophies won from enemies ; not, as Ernesti thinks, the honorary re- 
wards they had received for their valor. — Calgacus. The more cor- 
rect form of the name, as restored by Ernesti and Brotier from MSS. 
and early editions. The common text has Galgacus. Becker 
thinks that Calgarus is the true form, and refers in support of his 
opinion to Ossian ! 



NOTES ON THE AGRICOLA. CHAP. XXX. 185 



CHAPTER XXX. 

Causas belli et necessitate™, nostram. " The causes of the war, and 
our present necessity," *. c, the motives that necessarily impel us 
to war. — Nam et universi servitutis expertes. " For we are both, all 
of us, free (as yet) from slavery." Supply nos before universi, and 
sumus after expertes, and compare Annibal peto pacem (Liv., xxx., 
29), and Achat arma Romana sustinebimus {Id., xxxii., 21). — Prozlium 
atqae arma. By no means synonymous merely, as some suppose. 
Prozlium marks here the beginning of the conflict, and arma the 
maintaining of it gallantly by arms and prowess. — Spem ac subsidium 
m nostris manibus habebant. " Had their hope and last resource in 
our prowess." In ordinary prose the sentence would have run as 
follows : " Priorum pugnarum spes ska est in nostris manibus ;" and 
the general idea is this, " In all the battles which have yet been 
fought against the Romans, our countrymen may be deemed to have 
reposed their final hopes and resources in us." — Nobilissima totius 
Britannia;. The Caledonians looked upon themselves as an indig- 
enous race, and therefore styled themselves the noblest. Com- 
pare Ccesar (B. G., vi., 12) : " Interior pars ab its colitur quos natos 
in insula ipsa memorial proditur." — Eoque in ipsis penetralibus siti. 
" And, therefore, situated in its very inmost recesses." As in the 
penetralia of a dwelling all that was most valued was preserved, so 
here, in the very heart of Britain, in the very sanctuary, as it were, 
of the land, dwell the noblest and bravest of her sons. 

Nos, terrarum ac liber tatis extremos, &c. " Ourselves, the farthest 
people of the world and of freedom, our very remoteness, and the 
bosom of fame (which has thus far cherished us), have up to this 
day defended," i. e., we, dwelling at the extremity of the world, 
and the last people who have preserved their freedom, have been 
defended thus far by both the remoteness of our situation, and by 
the circumstance of our being the cherished ones of fame. The 
expression sinus famce has occasioned considerable difficulty here. 
Lipsius understands it as meaning that the Caledonians were 
scarcely known to fame ; that they were in sinu famce conditi ; and 
Gronovius adopts the same interpretation. But we have preferred 
the explanation of Walther, which seems to suit the context better. 
This last-mentioned editor compares sinus famce with the expres- 
sions " ge 'stare in sinu," " habere in sinu," &c ; and as these gener- 
ally refer to something cherished and valued, so here the same idea 
is, by a bold figure of speech, applied to the words of the text. — Nunc 



188 NOTES ON THE AGRICOLA. CHAP. XXX., XXXI. 

terminus Britannia patet, &c. " Now, (however), the extremity of 
Britain lies open to the view (of our foes), and whatever is unknown 
(merely) becomes an object of magnitude." The first part of this 
sentence, terminus Britannia patet, gives the reason why their re- 
moteness of situation will no longer defend them ; and the latter 
part, omne ignotum pro magnifico est, shows in like manner why their 
former fame will no longer serve as a protection ; for the Romans, 
who, when at a distance, magnified their strength, from knowing 
little concerning it, will, now that they are near, conceive a less 
formidable idea respecting it. 

Sed nulla jam ultra gens, &c. The connecting idea between this 
and the previous sentence is purposely suppressed by the writer, 
from motives of brevity, and must be supplied by the reader : " Some 
one here may say, ' Let us then ask the aid of other nations? but there 
is no nation beyond us," &c. — Et infestiores Romani. "And (on 
the other side are) the Romans, still more hostile (even than these)," 
i. e., than the waves and rocks. — Raptores. "The plunderers." — 
Et mare. " The ocean, also." 

Opes atque inopiam. "Wealth and indigence," i. c, wealthy and 
indigent communities. Equivalent to opulentos atque inopes. — Impe- 
rium. "Empire" 



CHAPTER XXXI. 

Hi per delectus, alibi servituri, &c. Britons are traced in Illyri- 
cum, Gaul, Spain, and elsewhere. {Cannegiet. de Brittenb., p. 57.) 
So we find Sigambri in Thrace (Ann., iv., 47), and Ligurians in Nu- 
midia (Sail., Jug., 100.) — Bona for tunas que in tributum egerunt, &c. 
" They consume our goods and property in taxes, the produce of 
the year in contributions of corn." We must not confound ege- 
runt here (from egero) with egerunt (from ago), as some have very 
strangely done. As regards the force of egerere here, compare 
Quintil., Declam., 5, 17 : " Census in exsequias egerere," and consult 
Walch, ad loc. — Annos. Employed here for proventus annorum. So 
Lucan, iii., 452 : " Agricolce raptum flevere juvencis annum." Com- 
pare Germ., 14: "Nee arare terram et exspectare annum tarn facile 
persuaseris," &c. 

Silvis ac paludibus emuniendis. " In making roads through woods 
and over marshes." Munire is used properly when a piece of work 
is performed by a number of persons, to each of whom a portion is 
allotted. The root is the same as in munus, "a task." Hence, 
munire viam is not to fortify a road, but simply to make one. — Ver- 



NOTES ON THE AGRICOLA. CHAP. XXXI. 187 

bera inter ac contumclias. Observe here the anastrophe of the prep- 
osition after the manner of the poets, an arrangement admitted also, 
though less frequently, by other writers besides Tacitus, but chiefly 
those, like him, of the silver age. So we have "insulam inter Ger- 
manosque" (Hist., v., 19); " ripam ad Ewpkratis" (Ann., vi., 37); 
" hostem propter" (Ann., iv., 48). — Britannia servitutem suam, &c. 
Namely, by paying tribute, and supplying the Roman armies with 
food. Observe that pascere is properly used with reference to cattle. 

Et conservis. Observe that et has here the force of etiam. — In hoc 
orbis terrarum vetere famulatu. " In this ancient household of the 
world," i. e., amid this troop of nations subjected in succession from 
of old. — Novi nos et viles. Equivalent to nos tanquam novi et viles. — 
Quibus exercendis reservemur. " For bestowing our labors upon 
which we may be reserved." We have given exercendis here a 
general signification, which suits equally well' all the three nouns 
that precede. In strictness, however, there is a zeugma in the 
term, since exercendis properly applies only to arva and metalla, " the 
working of fields and mines," while in connection with portus it re- 
fers to the collecting of customs and port-duties for the benefit of 
others. Some editors think that exercere portus is meant to denote 
here the servile drudgery of rowing. This, however, is not correct, 
since the allusion in portus, as in arva and metalla, is to sources of 
gain eagerly sought after by Roman cupidity. 

Brigantes femina duce, &c. Cambden substituted Trinobantes 
for Brigantes here, from Dio Cassius (lxii., 1), and Ann., xiv., 31 ; 
and in this he has been followed by several editors. But the alter- 
ation is unnecessary. The insurrection of the Britons against Sue- 
tonius Paulinus began with the Iceni, and their queen Boadicea. 
With the Iceni were united the Trinobantes, et qui alii, nondum ser- 
vitio fracti, resumere libertatem occultis conjuratioriibus pepigerant. 
(Ann., xiv., 31.) By these we can not well understand the Silures, 
in whose territory Suetonius was posted ; and, accordingly, we 
must look to the northern tribes above the Iceni. The wide extent 
of the Brigantes, the loose connection of some of the tribes with 
their queen, Cartismandua, and their fondness for warlike adven- 
ture, which is marked by their very name (Brigands), render it not 
unlikely that some of the southern divisions of this race took part 
in the insurrection of their neighbors. Why, moreover, should 
Calgacus mention the remote and comparatively small tribe of the 
Trinobantes, rather than the neighboring and powerful one of the 
Brigantes] (Compare Ann., xii., 32.) 

Et libertatem non in prcesentia laturi. There is some corruption 
T2 



188 NOTES ON THE AGRICOLA. CHAP. XXXI., XXXII. 

in the text here, and endless conjectures have been hazarded re- 
specting it ; but no one seems to have discovered the true reading. 
The corrections may be divided into two classes. 1. Those which 
make the words contain merely a repetition of the idea conveyed 
by integri et indomiti ; as, libertatem non in prcesentia illaturi ; lib. non 
in prcesenti ablaturi ; lib. non in prcesens vindicaturi. Most of the in- 
terpreters keep the words libertatem laturi, and explain laturi in the 
sense of carrying off as a prize. Compare " Plus flagitii et pericuh 
laturos" {Ann., vi., 34), and oho/zevot dogav (Thucyd., ii., 12). The 
general meaning given to the sentence is, " We, who have not now 
for the first time to win our freedom." And this, no doubt, is the 
best view to be taken of the subject. 2. Those which make a sort 
of opposition between the two clauses. Among these are, Et lib. 
nunc demum periclitaturi (Gronovius) ; Et lib. omnem in procinctu la- 
turi — Et lib. in prcemium laturi (Ernesti) ; Et libertatem in pracipi- 
tem aleam laturi (Walch). Compare " Ne elatus felicitate summam 
rerumin nonnecessariam aleam daret." (Liv., xxxvii., 36 ; xlii., 59.) 
Non ostendamus. The employment of non for nonne is not un- 
frequent. Compare Cic. in Verr., iv., 7 : " Quis vestrum igitur 
nescit, quanti hcec cestimentur ? In auctione signum aneum non mag- 
num HS. CXX. millibus venire non vidimus V and Virg., JEn., ix., 
144 : " At, non viderunt mcenia Troja, Neptuni fabricata manu, consi- 
der e in ignes ?" — Seposuerit. " Has reserved (for her defence)." 



CHAPTER XXXTI. 

Lasciviam. " Dissoluteness." — Ex diver sissimis nationibus. As, 
for example, the Britanni, Batavi, Tungri, Galli, Itali, &c. (Com- 
pare chapters xiii. and xxxvi.) — Nisi si. Consult note on "nisi si 
patria sit" Germ., 2. — Pudel dictu. Instead of pudet dicere. Com- 
pare " Puditum est factis" (Plant., Bacch., iii., 1, 12), and " Quia dictu 
fastidienda sunt" {Vol. Max., ix., 3, 2). — Licet dominationi aliena, &c. 
" Although they afford their own blood unto a foreign dominion, yet 
for a longer period its foes than its subjects," i. e., although they 
are now shedding their own blood in support of a foreign yoke. 
Observe that commodore has here its proper signification, namely, 
"in gratiam alicujus aliquid pr&bere," and consult Botticher, Lex. 
Tac, s. v. — Metus et terror est. " It is fear and terror (that retains 
them), feeble bonds of attachment," i. e., that retains them in loyalty 
and affection (fide et affectu tenet). 

Aut nulla plerisque patria, aut alia est. " Most of them have either 
no country, or else a different one from this," i. e., one far away. 



NOTES ON THE AGRICOLA. CHAP. XXXII., XXXIII. 189 

The meaning is as follows : the greater part are either the betrayers 
of their country, as the Britanni ; or are fighting in a foreign land, 
as the Batavi, Tungri, Galli, &c. — Paucos numero, circum trepidos 
ignoraniia. Some editors take circum trepidos to be equivalent to 
circum trepidantes, or trepide circum vagantes, while others strike out 
circum. But that would be equivalent to saying, Qui non solum om- 
nino trepidi sunt ignoraniia, verum etiam ignorant, qua in ccelo, &c., 
appareant. Most probably some such word as locorum, viarum, or 
regionum has been lost before circum. Circum must then be taken 
as in Ann., xii., 55 : " Duri circum loci." The words may then be 
translated, "A few in number, dismayed through their ignorance 
of the surrounding country." 

Nostras manus. " Our own bands," i. e., numbers ready to unite 
with us. He alludes not merely to the Britons, but to the Gauls 
also, and the Germans. — Tamquam nuper Usipii, &c. Compare 
chapter xxviii. — Senum colonic. Only one colony is, in fact, meant. 
(Consult note on " trucidati veterani, incensce colonics," chapter v.) — 
JEgra et discordantia. " Disaffected and distracted." — Hie. " Here 
(with us)." — In hoc campo est. " Depends upon this field," i. e., de- 
pends upon your exertions in this field. Compare De Lamalle, " il 
depend de vous, sur ce champ de bataille." 



CHAPTER XXXIII. 

Excepere orationem, &c. " They received his harangue with ex- 
cited feelings, and, after the barbarian manner, with songs, and 
yells, and dissonant cries." The verb excipere is used in the same 
manner by Livy (xxiv., 31), " Exceptus clamor ab aliis." Compare 
Ann., ii., 38 : " Hczc plures per silentium aut occultum murmur exce- 
pere.'''' — Jamque agmina, &c. Supply apparent. The ellipsis of this 
verb is common in Tacitus. — Audentissimi cujusque procursu. " In 
consequence of the hurrying to the front on the part of each most 
daring one." This assigns the reason why the armorum fulgores 
were seen, and there ought, therefore, as Walch remarks, to be a 
comma after agmina. — Instruebatur acies. " The army (of the Cal- 
edonians) was being drawn up in line." — Coercitum. " Capable of 
being restrained." This has here the force of an adjective in His. 
So, " Genus mobile, infidum, neque beneficio neque metu coercitum. 
(Sail., Jug., 91) ; and, again, " Quamquam infinitum id existimatur, 
nee tenure sine aliqua reprehensione tractatum," instead of tractabile 
(Plin., H. N., iii., Proem.) 

Militem adhortatus. This perfect participle is in meaning equiv- 



190 NOTES ON THE AGRICOLA. CHAP. XXXIII. 

alent to a present participle. So Horat., Sal., ii., 3, 34, " Solatus 
jussit sapientem pascere barbam ;" and Hist., ii., -96, " insect atus ;" 
Ann., i., 40, " complexus" &c. (Compare the remarks of Botticher, 
p. xxxix.) Grammarians call this usage the employing of the perfect 
participle aopLcrog, or indefinitely. — Octavus annus est. It was, in 
fact, only the seventh summer since he had arrived in Britain. But 
he probably includes the year 77, in which he was appointed gov- 
ernor, though he did not arrive in Britain till A.D. 78. It is pos- 
sible, however, that octavus (viii.) may be a mistake for septimus 
(vii.). — Virtute et auspiciis, &c. " Through the energy and auspices 
of the Roman Empire, you have, by your fidelity and perseverance, 
been conquering Britain." — Neque. ''Neither (during all this pe- 
riod)." 

Veterum legatorum. Equivalent to priorum legatorum. — Terminos. 
Governed by egressi. (Zumpt, § 387.) — Finem Britannia, non fama, 
&c. " We are become acquainted with the extremity of Britain, 
not by widely disseminated accounts, nor by mere uncertain rumor, 
but by actual possession with our arms and encampments." Ob- 
serve that fama and rumore are not mere synonyms here, as Wal- 
ther and others suppose. The distinction is well laid down by D6- 
derlein (Lat. Syn., v., p. 233). — Et vota virtusque in aperto. "And 
your vows and valor have now free scope," i. e., you have now an 
open field for fulfilling your vows and displaying your valor. 

Pulchrum ac decorum in frontem. Lipsius took frontem here in 
the same sense as speciem. Brotier, also, translated it by en appa- 
rence. Some render it as if it were proficiscentibus in frontem, which 
would be rather a harsh expression. Frons here is equivalent to 
acies ; qua adversus hostem spectat (Veget., iii., 14). Translate, 
therefore, the whole sentence as follows : " For, as the having sur- 
mounted so long a route, the having made our way through forests, 
the having crossed arms of the sea, is glorious and full of honor to 
an army marching against the foe ; so are these same things," &c. 
Pulchrum in frontem, for pulchrum fronti. Observe that pulchrum, ju- 
cundum, gratum mihi, is the common expression ; but Tacitus uses 
" grata in vulgus" (Ann., ii., 59). So other writers say : " dissimilis 
alicui ;" but Tacitus has, " hand dissimili in dominum" (Ann., ii., 39) ; 
and " Magnifica in populum largitio" (lb., ii., 48). — Hodie. "This 
day." Well explained by Walther : " Eo statu, quo hodie versamur ; 
oppositum est fugse." 

Jam pridem mihi decretum est. " I have long since come to the 
conclusion," i. e., it has long been a principle of action with me. — 
Neque exercitus, neque duels terga tuta esse. Compare Xenophon, 



NOTES ON THE AGRICOLA. CHAP. XXXIV. 191 

Cyrop., i., 3 : Mupbv yap to Kpardv 3ov7.oii£vovg ra rv<pXa rod (Jcoua- 
rog, nal uoTT/M, fiai ogetpa, Tavra kvavria Tarreiv rolg izo?.eLiioLg (psv- 
yovrag. 



CHAPTER XXXIY. 

C oust itis set. " Stood in array (against you)/' — Nunc. " As it is, 
however," i. c, as matters, however, actually are. — Furto noctis. 
"Under the stealthy covering of the night.' 1 — Clamor e. "By a 
mere shout." — U cetcrorum Britannorum fugacissimi. " These, in 
respect of the rest of the Britons, the greatest fugitives of all." Ob- 
serve here the peculiar and apparently illogical construction of cetc- 
rorum with the superlative, and which we have endeavored to soft- 
en down in translating. It is, in fact, an imitation of a Greek idiom. 
Thus, we have in Thucydides (i., 1), 'A^ioXoyurarov tcjv irao-yeyevn* 
(zevuv T7o?J t uG)v. (Consult Poppo, ad he, and Herm., ad Vig-, p. 718.) 

Quomodo silvas saltusquc penctrantihus, &Q. "As, when hunters 
penetrate into woods and thickets, each fiercest animal is laid low- 
by the strength, the timorous and weak ones are put to flight by the 
very noise of the band, so," &c. The old reading was mere, for 
which one of the MSS. gives contra mere, the word contra having 
been written over the line by the copyist, evidently for the purpose, 
as Walqh remarks, of imparting some sense to mere. This latter 
reading is adopted by Brotier, the Bipont editor, Oberlin, Dronke, 
Bekker, and others ; but the true lection, nevertheless, is robore, 
which the very opposition to sono plainly indicates. Besides, the 
infinitive mere can not be used in this way after quomodo or sicut ; 
while if we regard it, not as the infinitive, but the 3d pi. of the per- 
fect (for ruerunt), we ought then to have the same tense, instead 
of the present, in pelluntur. According to the reading which we 
have adopted, both robore (i. e., agminis) and ipso sono are construct- 
ed with pelluntur , but there is a zeugma in the passage, and with 
robore we must, in fact, understand such a verb as cceditur. (Com- 
pare Walch y ad loc.) 

Reliquus est numerus, (Sec. "There remains only a number of 
cowardly and timid men, whom you have found at last, not because 
they opposed you, but because, being the last, they have been over- 
taken and caught by you." The expression quos quod tandem in- 
venisds nan restitcrunt is an imitation of the Greek idiom, for qui, 
quod invenistis eos, non restitcrunt. So " Urbcjn quam statuo vestra 
est 1 '' (Virg., J5«., i., 573), and " Eunuchum quern dedisti quas turbas 
dedit" (Ter., Eun., iv., 3, 11). — hi his restigiis. "In this place 



192 NOTES ON THE AGRICOLA. CHAP. XXXIV., XXXV. 

where they are standing." — In quibus pulchram, &c. " In order 
that you might, in this same place, show forth unto the world a 
glorious and imposing victory." Equivalent to ut in iis {i. e., ves- 
tigiis) ederetis, &c. 

Transigite cum expeditionibus. " Bring (now) your expeditions to 
a close." Equivalent to finite expeditiones . Compare Germ., 19 : 
" Cum spe votoque uxoris semel transigitur ;" and Ann., xii., 19 : " Bel- 
lorum egregios fines, quotiens ignoscendo transigatur" — Imponite quin- 
quaginta annis magnum diem. " Crown the fifty years with one 
glorious day." He is speaking in round numbers ; from the expe- 
dition of A. Plautius it was only forty-two years. — Approbate reipub- 
licce. " Prove to your countrymen." 



CHAPTER XXXV. 

Et alloquente adhuc Agricola. " Both while Agricola was yet ad- 
dressing them." — Mediam aciem firmarent. " Formed a strong cen- 
tre." Observe that firmarent is equivalent here to firmando forma- 
rent. Compare Liv., xxii., 46: " Dextrum cornu Numidis cquitibus 
datum, media acie pedilibus firmata ;" and, again, xxiii., 29 : " Mediam 
aciem Hispanis firmat." Under the expression mediam aciem Taci- 
tus includes all the infantry between the two bodies of cavalry. — 
Cornibus affunderentur. " Were poured upon the wings," i. e., were 
spread out and formed the wings. — Pro vallo. " Before the in- 
trenchments," i. e., in the rear of the auxiliaries. — Ingens victoria 
decus, &c. " A glorious ornament of victory unto the leader waging 
the fight without any effusion of Roman blood," %. e., a disposition 
of his forces which would render the victoiy signally glorious, if it 
were obtained without the expense of Roman blood. The more 
common prose form of expression would have been, " Ingens impe- 
ratoris in victoria decus, si bellaret extra Romanum sanguinem" As 
regards the force of extra here, consult note on Germ., 16. 

Ut primum agmen cequo, &c. " That the first line stood upon the 
plain, the others, as if linked together, rose one above the other 
along the ascent of the mountain." — Media campi. " The interven- 
ing space (between the two armies)." The space between the van 
of the Caledonians and the Roman line. — Covinarius. " The chari- 
oteers." Singular for the plural, as in eques immediately after. 
Covinarius signifies the driver of a covinus (Celtic Kowain), a kind 
of car, the spokes of which were armed with long sickles, and which 
was used as a scythe-chariot chiefly by the ancient Belgians and 
Britons. (Diet. Ant., s. v.) — Eques. The cavalry of the Britons is 



NOTES ON THE AGRICOLA. CHAP. XXXV., XXXVI. 193 

meant (for they had both charioteers and horse), not that of the Ro- 
mans. (Compare note on " interim equitum turmce fugere," &c, 
chap, xxxvi.) 

Simul in frontem simul et later a. Gesner, without any necesshy, 
reads et in later a. The preposition is understood. Compare Ann., 
vi., 51 : " Quamquam mater in Liviam, et mox (in) Juliam familiam 
adoptionibus transient." Similar examples of ellipsis in the case of 
de, per, ad, and a may be seen in Wopke?is, Act. Traj., ii., p. 67. 
Nothing is more in accordance with the conciseness of Tacitus. — 
Diductis ordinibus. " Having extended his ranks." Compare Duker, 
ad Liv., v., 28. Virdung refers in illustration to the Greek vireptpa?,- 
ayye.lv, " to extend the line of one's phalanx." — Porrectior. il More 
drawn out," i. c, weaker. — Promtior in spem. Tacitus, also, uses 
promtior alicui. Thus, Ann., iv., 60 : " Mater promtior Neroni erat." 
Older writers commonly have promtus ad aliquid. — Pedes ante vezilla 
constitit. " He took his station on foot before the ensigns." 



CHAPTER XXXVI. 

Constantia. "With steadiness." — Arte. "With dexterity." — 
Ingentibus gladiis et brcvibus cctris. " With huge swords and short 
targets." These targets {cetra) were small and round, and made 
of the hide of a quadruped. The broad-sword and target long re- 
mained, even in modern times, the peculiar arms of the Scottish 
Highlanders. — Vitare, vel excutere. " Avoided or struck aside." 
According to Vegetius (i., 4), the Roman recruit was instructed 
plagam prudenter evitare, et obliquis ictibus venientia tela deflectere. 
This is what Tacitus expresses here by the words evitare and ex- 
cutere. 

Tungrorum duas. Many monuments of these Tungrian cohorts 
remain in Britain, on which we find the words COH. TUNGR. or 
COH. I. TUNGROR. MIL.— Ad mucrones ac manus. "To the 
sword-point and a hand-to-hand fight." The Britons struck with 
the edge of their swords (ccesim) ; the Romans, on the contrary, and 
the allies that were armed after the Roman fashion, used their 
shorter weapons for both cutting and thrusting (ccesim et punctim). 
On the present occasion the Batavians and Tungri are ordered to 
rush in to close quarters and employ the thrust, which would place 
their opponents completely at their mercy. (Compare Vegetius, i., 
12, and Brotier, ad loc.) 

Quod et ipsis vetustate militia exer citatum, &c. " A movement 
that was both familiar unto themselves, from long experience in 

I 



194 NOTES ON THE AGRICOLA. CHAP. XXXVI. 

warfare, and embarrassing to the foe," &c. The small shields of 
the Britons did not cover their bodies, and their huge swords were 
not easily wielded at close quarters. — Complexion armorum et in 
arcto pugnam. " The thrusts of the Roman weapons, and a close 
fight." According to Ernesti, complexus armorum is pugna quce fit 
cominus et conserendis manibus. Brotier understands it in the same 
sense : Complexus est quod Gallice dicimus " la m6lee," cum cominus 
hostis petitur; if, however, this interpretation were correct, complexus 
armorum would have the same meaning as the following words, in 
arcto pugna, that is, pugna cominus. But as in arcto pugnam refers, 
apparently, to manus preceding (ut rem ad mucrones ac manus adduce- 
rent), so complexus may refer to mucrones ; and it will then merely 
mean the blows or thrusts of the Roman weapons. — In arcto pug- 
nam. So, " in arcto pugna' 1 (Liv., xxviii., 33). The old reading was 
in aperto, which does not suit the meaning. 

Miscere ictus, ferire umbonibus, &c. Observe the air of rapidity 
and animation which the succession of infinitives imparts to the 
narration. — Erigere aciem. Consult notes on chap, xviii., u erexit 
aciem." — JEmulatione et impetu. " Through emulation of their ex- 
ample, and their own native impetuosity." — Festinatione victoria. 
" In their eager pursuit of victory." Observe that festinatio here 
follows the active meaning, which festino and propero nearly always 
have in Tacitus. (Compare Ann., xiii., 17 ; Hist., iii., 25.) 

Equitum turma fugere. We have given these words as they are 
found in all the early editions. Lipsius, imagining that the Roman 
cavalry were here meant, suspected the passage of being corrupt, 
and conjectured equitum turma cffudert et covinarii, &c, or, rather, 
equitum turmce effuscz et covinarii, &c. Ernesti prefers erupere to 
fugere, thinking, with Lipsius, that the Romans are referred to ; 
while Walch supposes that an entire sentence has been omitted, 
which he attempts to supply. All this correction, however, is per- 
fectly unnecessary. By equitum Tacitus means the cavalry of the 
Britons, put to flight by the Romans, and the expression turmce, 
which has misled so many commentators, may be applied to the 
British as well as to the Roman horse. Thus Tacitus elsewhere 
{Ann., xiv., 34) writes, " Britannorum copice passim per catervas et 
turmas exsultabant." 

Covinarii peditum se prozlio miscuere. While the cavalry of the 
Britons, on their defeat by the Roman horse, fled from the scene of 
action, the charioteers, in like manner repulsed, retreated to their 
own infantry. By peditum, therefore, the British foot soldiers are 
meant, not, as some think, the Roman. — Et quamquam recentem ter~ 



NOTES ON THE AGRICOLA. CHAP. XXXVI., XXXVII. 195 

rorem intulerant, &c. "And, although they had at first struck ter- 
ror, were now, however, entangled among the crowded bands of 
the enemy, and the inequalities of the ground." Observe that by 
hostium are here meant the Britons themselves, not, as Walther and 
others suppose, the Romans. On retreating to their own infantry, 
the charioteers, who had occasioned some consternation by their 
first shock, now became of little, if any, service ; for the crowded 
bands of their own countrymen, already thrown into confusion by 
the charge of the Batavians and Tungri, as well as the inequalities 
of the ground, since the P^omans were now making their way up 
the acclivity, prevented them from using their chariots freely. — 
Hostium. Muretus and Gronovius conjecture nostrorum, and Er- 
nesti cohortium, but without any necessity. 

Minimeque equestris ea pugnce fades erat, &c. " And the appear- 
ance thus presented was by no means that of an equestrian con- 
flict, since, keeping their ground with difficulty for any length of 
time, they were both forced along by the very bodies of their horses, 
and oftentimes straggling chariots, and affrighted horses without 
drivers, just as fear had impelled each, rushed against those who 
crossed their path or met them in front." The true reading of this 
passage is extremely uncertain. The one which we have given is 
adopted by Brotier and others, and appears to give the best sense. 
When the charioteers had reached their own infantry, and were 
struggling with their vehicles in the midst of this disorderly throng, 
the confused appearance thus presented was very different, accord- 
ing to our author, from that which a battle with chariots or with 
cavalry usually presents ; for, keeping their footing with difficulty 
on the declivity, they were every moment either impelled down- 
ward by the mere weight of the bodies of the horses, or dragged 
about by the affrighted steeds in utter disorder, and encountering 
friends and foes alike. 



CHAPTER XXXVII. 
Vacui spernebant. " Were regarding with contempt, while thus 
disengaged." Observe that vacui gets its force here from pugnce, 
expertes, which precedes. — Ni id ipsum veritus, &c. " (And they 
would have accomplished their object), had not Agricola, having 
apprehended this very movement," &c. Compare note on " Agi- 
tasse C. Ccesarem," &c, chap. xiii. — Ad subita belli retentas. " Held 
in reserve for the sudden emergencies of battle." — Accurrerant. 
Dronke writes accucurrerant. The reduplicated form, however, oc- 



196 NOTES ON THE AGRICOLA. CHAP. XXXVII. 

curs only once in Tacitus, in decucurrit (Ann., ii., 7). — Transvecta- 
que pracepto ducts, &c. " And the squadrons having then, by order 
of the general, been moved across the field from the front of the 
battle," &c, i. e., having been ordered to wheel from the front. 

Turn vero patentibus locis, &c. Imitated from Sallust (Jug., 101) : 
" Turn spectaculum horribile campis patentibus ; sequi, fugere ; occtdi, 
capi," &c. Observe the animated effect produced in both passages 
by the series of historical infinitives, and the absence of the con- 
necting conjunction. — Eosdem, oblatis aliis, trucidare. " Slaughtered 
these same, as others came in their way." By eosdem are meant 
those who had been taken. — Prout cuique ingenium erat. " Accord- 
ing as the disposition of each one prompted." Compare Sallust (Jug., 

93): " Uti cujusque ingenium erat." — Jam hostium virtusque. 

There is an antithesis between jam hostium .... offerre, and est 
.... virtusque. To the former is subjoined, as its consequent, pas- 
sim .... humus ; and to the latter, postquam silvis .... circumveni- 
ebant. Dahl and some other editors propose to alter the order of the 
clauses, but, by so doing, they disturb the natural order of the ideas. 

Est aliquando etiam metis, &c. " Rage and valor were at times 
present even to the vanquished." Compare Virg., Mn., ii., 367: 
" Quondam etiam metis redit in prcecordia virtus.'''' Observe, more- 
over, that est in this position is emphatic. — Quodni frequens ubique 
Agricola, &c. " And had not Agricola, being every where present, 
ordered some strong and lightly-equipped cohorts to encompass the 
ground after the manner of a hunting-circle, and, wherever there 
w T ere thickets, a part of his cavalry to dismount and make their way 
through these, and, at the same time, another part on horseback to 
scour the more open woods, some disaster would have been en- 
countered through excess of confidence." Observe the zeugma in 
persultare, by which the verb acquires three different significations 
in three successive clauses. — Indaginis modo. The term indago re- 
fers to that mode of hunting in which the hunters formed a com- 
plete circle round a large space of ground ; and, gradually contract- 
ing it, drove all the animals together into the centre, where they 
fell an easy prey to their darts. (Compare Liv., vii., 37 ; Flor., iv., 
12, 48.) — Sicubi arctiora erant. Supply loca, 

Compositos firmis ordinibus. " Arranged in complete order." — 
Agminibus. " In bands." — Vitabundi invicem. " Mutually avoiding 
each other." — Satietas. " Satiety of slaughter." Supply ccedendi. 
— Sexaginta. Some editions have quadraginta. The change is very 
slight, XL for LX. — Ferocia equi. " The impetuosity of his steed." 
(Compare chap, ii., "plus tamen ferocia") 



NOTES ON THE AGRICOLA. CHAP. XXXVIII. 197 



CHAPTER XXXVIII. 

Gaudio pradaque lata. " Rendered gladsome by the joy of suc- 
cess and by plunder." — Per iram. u In the rage of despair." — Mis- 
cere invicem consilia aliqua, &c. " Arranged some plans together, 
then deliberated by themselves," i. e., sometimes they conferred to- 
gether ; and again, at other times, deliberated by themselves. With 
scparare supply alia. i. e., consilia. — Frangi aspectu pignorum suorum. 
" Were broken down in spirit at the sight of their pledges of affec- 
tion," i. e., their wives and little ones. — Savisse in. " Laid violent 
hands upon." 

Secreti colics. " Deserted hills," i. e., hills before crowded with 
human beings, now desolate and solitary. Ernesti's emendation of 
descrti colics is altogether unnecessary, and arose from his misunder- 
standing the force of secreti, and giving it the meaning of remotiores. 
— Ubi incerta fuga vestigia, &c. "When it was ascertained that 
the tracks of flight were all uncertain," &c. — Et, cxacta jam (Estate, 
spargi helium nequibat. " And (when), the summer being now ended, 
the war could not well be spread throughout the country." — Horcs- 
tonan. Mannert (ii., p. 65) places the Horesti near the Frith of Tay, 
and condemns the opinion of those who make them to have been 
the inhabitants of what is now Angus Shire. This would have been 
too near the foe, who, though defeated, might still have annoyed Ag- 
ricola's forces. 

Circumvchi Britanniam. This was more for the sake of conquest 
than of discovery. Hence, the expression employed immediately 
after, data ad id vires, " A sufficient force was furnished him for 
that purpose." — Ipsa transitus mora. " By the very slowness of his 
march through them." — Secunda tempestate ac fama. " With favor- 
ing weather and fame," i. e., both favored by prosperous gales, and 
bearing along with them the fame of the Roman arms. — Trutulenscm 
portum. Where this was is not known. Brotier identifies it with 
the portus Rutupinus, or Rutupcnsis, the modern Sandwich ; others 

with Portsmouth or Plymouth. But the words unde redierat 

must mean Quo redierat, inde lecto proximo omni Britannia latere, 
" Unto which it had returned, after having set out from the same 
and coasted all the nearest shore of Britain ;" and as proximo latere 
omni evidently means merely the eastern coast and part of the north 
and west coast, Mannert's opinion is probably the true one, that the 
harbor in question was near the Frith of Tay, and that the fleet only 
sailed along enough of the coast to prove that Britain was an island. 
{Mannert, ii., p. 67.) 



198 NOTES ON THE AGRICOLA. CHAP. XXXIX. 



CHAPTER XXXIX. 

Nulla verborum jactantia auctum. " Unadorned by any pomp of 
words." We have given auctum, the very happy emendation of 
Lipsius. The common text has actum, but we may be allowed to 
doubt the Latinity of such an expression as rerum cursum epistolis 
agere (Walther, ad loc). — Inerat conscientia. "He was conscious." 
Inerat, used absolutely in this way, is found elsewhere. Thus, 
" Prcecipua pedum pernicitas inerat." (Liv., ix., 16.) Compare 
Sophocles, (Ed. T., 578 : "Apvnaic ova eveanv <jv avLoropeZc. 

Falsum e Germania triumphum. This refers to his first fictitious 
triumph over the Catti, in A.D. 84. The occasion was furnished, 
apparently, by the Cheruscan king, Charomer, who, by means of 
Roman influence and Roman money, having become too powerful 
for his hostile neighbors, was expelled by the Catti. Dio Cassius 
(lxvii., 4) says that he returned without even having seen an enemy ; 
still, however, the affair must have been attended with some suc- 
cess, since we learn from Frontinus (Strategy i., 3) that he con- 
structed the frontier wall between the free Germans and those who 
were subject to Rome, so that he must, at any rate, have succeeded 
in confining the barbarians within their own territory. — Emtis per 
commercia, &c. He purchased a number of slaves, and attired them 
like Germans, having also caused their hair to be dyed in imitation 
of the ruddy locks of that nation, and then paraded these in triumph 
through the streets of Rome as so many real captives. Caligula 
had done the same thing before him. (Suet., Cal., 47.) 

Id sibi maxime formidolosum. " He thought that this was most to 
be apprehended by himself." Putabat or existimabat must be sup- 
plied from inerat conscientia. Observe, moreover, that formidolosus 
is here passive. Thucydides (i., 36) uses adeecrepov in the same 
way. — Frustra studiafori, &c. Domitian thought that it was of no 
use for him to have put an end to the study of eloquence and polite 
literature, and to have banished those who excelled in such pur- 
suits (compare chap, ii.), if some one should obtain popularity by 
his success in war. — Et cetera utcunque facilius, &c. " That all 
other accomplishments, too, whether more or less easily, are capable 
of being concealed from view (by their possessor), that the talents 
of an able commander, (however), form an attribute of empire." 
More literally, " are imperial," i. e., mark their possessor as a fit 
individual to attain unto empire. Ernesti incorrectly construes 
utcunque with dissimulari, and hence regards facilius as savoring of 



NOTES ON THE AGRICOLA. CHAP. XXXIX., XL. 199 

a gloss. The true construction, however, is utcunque facilius, which 
Walch, whom we have followed, renders, " wic misslich es auch sei, 
sei es leichter" In earlier Latinity the clause would have run as 
follows : et cetera, utcunque sit, facilius dissimulari. 

Quodque scbvce cogitationis indicium erat, &c. " And, what w T as a 
sure indication of some malignant intent, having brooded over them 
for a long time in his wonted privacy." More literally, " having 
sated himself with his wonted privacy." The allusion is to that love 
of solitude which became the most confirmed of all the habits of Do- 
mitian, and in which he indulged either for the purpose of plotting 
mischief against others, or gratifying his own vicious propensities. 
(Compare Suet., Bom., 3; Aur., Vict. Cces., 11 ; Plin., Paneg., 48; 
Scaliger, ad Euseb., p. 202.) — Impetus famce. "The first impulse 
of public opinion." — Britanniam obtinebat. " Held the command of 
Britain." 



CHAPTER XL. 

Triumphalia ornamenta. Since the year 735, after Agrippa's vic- 
tory over the Cantabri, the honor of the triumph itself belonged to 
the emperor and to the imperial princes. Other generals were 
forced to be contented with the mere insignia of the triumph, 
the bay chaplet, the toga prcetexta, the trabca triumphalis, triumphal 
statue (illustris), curule chair, ivory sceptre, &c. In the expression 
quidquid pro triumpho datur are included the public sacrifices and 
thanksgivings. (Compare Bio Cass., liv., 11, 24.) — Multo verborum 
honore cumulata. " Loaded with much complimentary language," L 
e., together with a profusion of complimentary expressions. — Ad- 
dique insuper opinionem. " And he causes, also, the expectation to 
be entertained." — Majoribus. " For persons of more than ordinary 
distinction." Observe that majoribus is here equivalent to tllusirio- 
ribus. So minores, in Ann., xvi., 8 ; Hist., iv., 85. The province 
of Syria embraced a very large portion of the East, and formed one 
of the most important and opulent of foreign commands. (Compare 
Herodian, ii., 7, and Bergier, in Grcev. Thes., vol. x., p. 218, seqq., $ 3.) 

Ex secretioribus ministeriis. "Of the number of those employed 
in confidential services." (Compare Botticher : " aus der vertrauteren 
Biener Zahl") — Codicillos. "Letters patent." — Ut, si in Britannia, 
foret, &c. Agricola was immediately recalled ; but the suspicious 
Domitian feared that he might maintain his post by force ; and the 
sending of this confidential freedman with letters patent, conferring 
on him the government of Syria, was merely a device to draw him 



200 NOTES ON THE AGRICOLA. CHAP. XL. 

away from Britain. If Agricola were already on his way to Rome, 
that would be unnecessary ; and, accordingly, the freedman, meet- 
ing Agricola on his journey, returned to Rome without delivering 
the letters. — In ipso freto oceani. The Straits of Dover. — Ex ingenio 
principis. "In accordance with the character of the prince." 

Tradiderat interim Agricola, &c. Dio Cassius (liii., 15) mentions 
an ordinance of Augustus, directing that, whenever a successor ar- 
rived, the previous governor should immediately resign his authority, 
and return home within three months after this. The successor 
of Agricola was probably Sallustius Lucullus, who, as Suetonius in- 
forms us, was put to death by Domitian for permitting certain lan- 
ces of a new construction to be called Lucullean. (Suet., Dom., 10.) 
The possession of the Highlands was lost after Agricola was re- 
called. (Compare Hist., i., 2.) — Ac, ne notabilis celebritate, &c. 
"And lest his entrance into the city might be too conspicuous, 
through the rank and numbers of those going out to meet him." 
We must not, as some do, make celebritate and frequentia synony- 
mous. The two terms are quite distinct, the former referring to 
rank, the latter to number. (Compare Botticher : " durch Glanz und 
Menge der Entgegenkommenden ;" and consult Lex. Tac, s. v.) — Ami- 
corum officio. " The salutation of his friends." (Compare Cic. pro 
Muran., 33, and Ernesti, Clav. Cic, s. v. Officium.) 

Exceptusque brevi osculo. "And having been received with a 
slight kiss." To salute with a kiss was an ordinary custom among 
the Romans, and the warmer the friendship the heartier the saluta- 
tion. Under the emperors the custom still continued, and the prince 
was wont to receive with a kiss the more distinguished of those who 
sought an audience with him. This, however, soon became the 
breve osculum, or slight ceremonious salutation, amounting to a mere 
matter of form; and in some cases, even, it was not given. (Con- 
sult Suet., Oth., 6; Ner., 37; Dom., 12; Dio Cass., lix., 30; 
Schwartz, ad Plin., Paneg., 24, 2, &c.) — Turbce servientium. " With 
the servile throng," i. e., of courtiers, &c. — Ut militare nomen, &c. 
" That he might soften down the glare of military reputation, op- 
pressive to those who lead lives of inaction," &c. As otium is com- 
monly used in opposition to bellum, so by otiosi here are properly 
meant the mere men of peace, if we may so express it, or, in other 
words, mere civilians. — Tranquillitatem a.tque otium penitus avxit. 
" He gave himself up entirely to tranquillity and ease." Penitus is 
here equivalent to prorsus, omnino, valde. (Compare Cic, Off., ii., 
18 : " ConsuetudAnem .... penitus amisimus") 

Cultu modicus, &c. " Plain in his mode of life, affable in conver- 



NOTES ON THE AGRICOLA. CHAP. XL., XLI. 201 

sation, accompanied (only) by one or two of his friends." Observe 
that cultus here has a general reference, and is not to be restricted 
to mere attire. (Compare the version of Walch : " einfach in Le- 
bensweise ;" and also that of Botticher : " machte wenig Avfwand") — 
Comitatus. Used passively, as in Cicero, de Or., iii., 6: " Eodem 
est instructu ornatuque comitata." (Consult Voss., de Anal., iii., p. 26.) 
Per ambitionem. " By the appearance which they make in pub- 
lic." (Compare Brotier : " Ex vita splendore et numeroso comitatu.") 
— JEstimare. " To form an opinion of." (Consult note on cestimaret, 
chap, v.) — Qiuzrerent famam. " Called in question his renown," i. e., 
missed the splendor which they had looked for in one so renowned, 
and, therefore, began to doubt the very existence of that renown 
itself. — Pauci interpretarentur. " Few could interpret his conduct," 
i. e., few understood his motives. 



CHAPTER XLI. 

Crebro per cos dies, &c. Among the enemies of Agricola may be 
mentioned M. Regulus, Veiento, and Publius Certus. Their accu- 
sations were made in secret, and hence absens accusatus. Domi- 
tian, however, felt himself the gross injustice of these charges, and, 
therefore, acquitted Agricola at once, without either notifying him 
of these accusations or calling upon him for any defence ; and hence 
absens absolutus est. This explanation will show the true force of 
absens here, and how erroneous is the reading of Augustinus, men- 
tioned by Ursinus, namely, prasens absolutus est. ( Ursin., Fragm. 
Vet. Hist., p. 461.) — Non crimen ullum, &c. " No crime against the 
state, nor a complaint from any individual who had been injured by 
him," i. e., no offence either public or private. (Compare Walch : 
" kcin Verbrechcn, nicht Klagcn eincs Verletzten") — Laudantes. " Eu- 
logists." Every word of praise bestowed upon Agricola would ex- 
cite, of course, the jealousy of the tyrant. 

Sileri. " To be passed over in silence." — Tot excrcitus, &c. This 
refers to the war with the Daci, Marcomanni, and Quadi, in the 
years 86-91, which ended with Domitian's second mock- triumph. 
The Romans, however, were, in fact, defeated, and Domitian was 
obliged to conclude peace with Decebalus, king of the Daci, on very 
humiliating terms. — Tot militares viri, &c. " So many men of mil- 
itary character, together with so many cohorts, defeated and taken 
prisoners." (Compare Lucret., iv., 1008 : " Reges expugnare ;" and 
Liv., xxiii., 30 : " Obscssos fame expugnavit") — De limite imperii. 
This, in all probability, must be looked for in the line of Roman 

12 



202 NOTES ON THE AGRICOLA. CHAP. XLI., XLII. 

forts still visible between Peterwardein and Bees, on the Teis. 
(Compare Mannert, iv., p. 170.)— Ripa. "The river's bank." There 
is no reference here to the Rhine. The right bank of the Danube 
is meant, as far as the Quadi and Marcomanni. 

Funeribus et cladibus. " By losses of leaders and overthrows of 
armies." Funeribus refers to the militares viri mentioned previ- 
ously, and cladibus to the forces under their charge. (Dronke, ad 
loc.) Compare the version of Botticher : " bedeutenderer Manner 
Tod und grosse Niederlagen." — Cum inertia et formidine reorum. 
" With the indolence and pusillanimity of those who were now ac- 
cused of (incapacity)," i. e., by the voice of the people. Reorum is 
a conjectural reading; the MSS. have eorum. Reus is frequently 
used, not merely in a strictly legal sense in opposition to accusator, 
petitor, actor, but with a more extended meaning. {Watch, ad loc.) 

Dum optimus quisque libertorum, &c. "While each best one of 
his freedmen, through affection and fidelity, the worst through ma- 
lignity and envy, kept urging to the choice a prince prone of him- 
self to follow the worst advisers." Dum is more usually followed 
by the present tense ; but there is nothing in the conjunction itself 
which necessarily requires this, and the imperfect, as here, is some- 
times found with it. 

In ipsam gloriam prceceps agebatur. The idea intended to be con- 
veyed by these words is, that Agricola's virtues, which were ma- 
liciously magnified by his enemies, raised his reputation and glory ; 
but that this very glory was the cause of his ruin. 



CHAPTER XLII. 
Quo proconsulatum Asia, &c "In which he was to draw lots 
for the proconsulate of Asia and Africa." Observe that et has here, 
in fact, a disjunctive force, two distinct proconsulates being made 
the subject of lot, and the two senior consulars casting lots for the 
same. Some editors, therefore, have conjectured aut for et; but 
this is unnecessary, since both provinces were, in fact, equally drawn 
for. {Mercer, ad Ann., iii., 32 ; Ernesti, ad loc.) If it was still the 
custom for the legati Ccesarum and proconsuls to wait five years 
before they again drew lots for the provinces {Dio Cass., liii., 14), 
the period referred to in the text would be the year 89 or 90. — Oc- 
ciso Civica. The reference is to Civica Cerialis, who, according 
to Suetonius (Dom., 10), was put to death in his proconsulate of 
Asia, on the charge of meditating a revolt. — Consilium. "A lesson." 
— Exemplum. "A precedent." (Compare the remark of Brotier : 



NOTES ON THE AGRICOLA. CHAP. XLII. 203 

" Occiso Civica, nee Agricola deer at consilium, ut invidiam principis 
timeret, nee Bomitiano exemplum, ut virtutem innocentis opprimeret") 

Cogitationum principis periti. " Acquainted with the secret in- 
clinations of the prince," i. e., his wish that Agricola should not ac- 
cept the foreign government. — Occultius. " Somewhat distantly." 
— In approbanda excusatione. " In making good his excuse (to the 
emperor)," i. e., his excuse for not accepting the proconsulate. 
(Compare, as regards the force of approbanda, the notes on chap, v.) 
— Non jam obscuri. This is a correction for non tarn obscuri, and 
answers infinitely better to primo occultius. Besides, ita, not tarn, 
would be required. 

Paratus simulatione. So " par atus>p edit atiC (Cic, ad Att., ix., 13). 
— In arrogantiam compositus. " Having assumed a stately air." — 
Agi sibi gr alias passus est. Obliging persons to return thanks for 
an injury was a refinement in tyranny frequently practiced by the 
worst of the Roman emperors. Thus, Seneca (dc Tranq. An., 14) 
informs us that Caligula was thanked by those w^hose children had 
been put to death, and whose property had been confiscated. 
(Aiken, ad loc.) — Nee erubuit beneficii invidia. " Nor blushed at the 
invidious nature of the favor," i. e., nor did he blush that Agricola 
should receive as a favor so marked an injury. Observe that in- 
vidia is here, in fact, for res invidiosa. 

Solarium. This was an allowance for the maintenance of the 
governor. The word is derived from sal, and means, properly, 
money given for purchasing salt. Compare Horace (Sat., i., 5, 
46) : " Parochi prcebent ligna salemque qua debent.'''' It was first 
granted by Augustus, and amounted sometimes to two hundred and 
fifty thousand drachmae, over forty thousand dollars. (Consult Dio 
Cass., lii., 23; lxxviii., 22.) — Ne quod vetuerat videretur emisse. 
11 Lest he might seem to have purchased what he had forbidden," i. 
e., lest it might seem a bribe for what he had, in reality, extorted by 
his authority. 

Proprium humani ingenii est. u It is a principle of human nature." 
As regards the sentiment expressed by the clause, compare Seneca 
(de Ira, ii., 33) : " Hoc habent pessimum animi magna fortuna inso- 
lentes, quos Iceserunt, et oderunt." — Sciant, quibus moris est, illicita 
mirari, &c. " Let those know whose custom it is to admire un- 
lawful things," &c, i. e., to admire every opposition to control. Illi- 
cita refers to the contumacia and inanis libertatis jactatio, frequently 
assumed by Stoics in those times ; as, for example, when Helvidius 
Priscus openly celebrated the birth-day of Brutus and Cassius. 
(Consult Dio Cass,, lxvi., 12, 13, 15.) — Eo laudis excedere,qv.o, &o. 

U 



204 NOTES ON THE AGRICOLA.— CHAP. XLIT., XLIII. 

"Attain unto the same degree of praise as that to. which many, 
through abrupt and dangerous paths, but without any benefit to their 
country, have brilliantly attained by an ambitious death." Observe 
that inclaruerunt is equivalent here to clarescentes pervenerunt. By 
abrupta is meant what Tacitus elsewhere (Ann., iv., 20) calls abrupta 
contumacia, opposed to deforme obsequium. The sense of the whole 
passage is this : " Obsequium et modestia, si industria ac vigor adsint, 
eo gloria perveniunt, quo -multi pcrvenire solent, per abruptam contuma- 
ciam mortem ambitiose quarentes, sed rempublicam nihil juv antes." 



CHAPTER XLIII. 

Finis vita, &c. The death of Agricola was, as his biographer 
plainly hints in what follows, either immediately caused or certainly 
hastened by the emissaries of Domitian, who could not bear the 
presence of a man pointed out by universal feeling as alone fit to 
meet the exigency of times in which the Roman arms had suffered 
repeated reverses in Germany and the countries north of the Dan- 
ube. Bio Cassius (Ixvi., 20) says expressly that he was killed by 
Domitian. — Extraneis etiam ignotisque non sine cura fuit. The epi- 
gram of Antiphilus (Anthol. Brunch, \\., 180) is commonly supposed 
to refer to the celebrated Agricola. 

a. Kpnvalat, TaSaSec, ri 7TE(pev-yaTe ; nov rbaov vdup ; 

Tic (f>/ibt; devdovc eaSeoev dekiov ; 
j8. Aa/cpvaiv 'AyptKoTiao rerpv/neda, irav 6' baov rjpZv 
y Hv ttotov, 7] neivov dtipac ex eL cnodirj : 
which Grotius translates : 

Quo fontis latices, quo copia vestra recessit ? 

Perpetuas solis quis color hausit aquas 1 
Agricola luctu consumimur ; illius ante 
Humida, nunc fiunt pulverulenta siti. 

Et hie aliud agens populus. " And the class that busy themselves 
about other people's affairs." (Compare the explanation of Walch : 
a j) er geschaftlose, um fremde, ihm niclits angehende Dinge, sich kum- 
mernde grosse Haufe") So Forcellini: " Aliud agere et alias res agere 
est vel de quo agitur dissimulare, vel ad alias res animum advzrtere" 
The explanation given by Pichena is wrong, though approved of by 
Ernesti ; namely, " Publicas res nihil curans, sed suis negotiis inten- 
tus." — Circulos. "Private circles." 

Nobis nihil comperti affirmare ausim. " For my own part, I can 
not venture to affirm that any thing has been found out by us for 



NOTES ON THE AGRICOLA. CHAP. XLII'I., XLIV. 205 

certain." Supply esse after nihil comperti, and refer nobis to the 
family and friends of Agricola. The clause is very obscurely word- 
ed, so much so, indeed, as to lead to the suspicion that the text has 
been corrupted. Various emendations, therefore, have been sug- 
gested by different editors, but all more or less unsatisfactory. The 
best of these, however, is that of Peerlkamp : Nobis nihil compertum 
(scil. esse) affirmare ausim. 

Crebrius quam ex more principatus, &c. "More frequently than 
accords with the custom of sovereigns, who pay visits merely by 
formal messages." Literally, " the custom of sovereignty, visiting 
by means of messages." — Medicorum intimi. " The most confiden- 
tial of the physicians (of the palace)," i. e., those wiio were deepest 
in the secrets and confidence of the prince. — Sive cura Mud, &c. 
"Whether that were anxiety for his recovery, or a prying into the 
progress of his disorder." 

Momenta deficientis. " The successive moments of the sinking 
man," i. e., the different stages of the death-struggle. (Compare 
Botticher: " die Stadien des Todeskampfes") — Per dispositos cursores. 
It appears that Domitian was at this time at his Alban villa, or cer- 
tainly absent somewhere from Rome. (Rhcnan., ad loc.) — Sic accel- 
erari qua tristis audiret. " That tidings which he could hear with 
sadness were thus accelerated," i. e., that so much pains was taken 
to accelerate information which could prove other than acceptable. 
— Animo vultuque. " In feeling and in look," i. e., he assumed a 
studied look of sorrow, as if it actually came from the heart. Hand, 
w T ho makes this an instance of hendiadys, explains it by " animo, qui 
in vultu appareV (ad Tursell., ii., p. 477). Dronke, however, still 
more neatly, by "vultum ita composuit quasi animo dolorem concepis- 
set." 

Quo coharedem optimce uxori, &c. This, of course, would be the 
best way of securing to his family a portion of his property. (Com- 
pare Ann., xvi., 11 : " Nee defuere qui monerent, magna ex parte he- 
redem Casarem nuncupare, atque ita nepotibus de reliquo consulere") 
— Piissimce. "Most dutiful," i. e., most devotedly affectionate. — 
Latatum eum velut honor e judicioque. " He was delighted therewith 
as if it had been an honorable testimony in his favor." Honore judici- 
oque is, by hendiadys, for judicio honorifico. 



CHAPTER XLIV. 
Natus erat Agricola, &c. The early editions, down to the time 
of Ursinus and Lipsius, have Caio Cces. ter. cons., which these edi- 



206 NOTES ON THE AGRICOLA. CHAP. XLIV. 

tors enlarged to Caio Casare tertium cons., and from that period ter- 
tium consule has remained the common reading. But Caligula's 
third consulate was in the year 793 ; the consulate of Collega and 
Priscus in 846. According to this, therefore, Agricola would have 
died in the fifty-fourth year of his age, being fifty-three years, two 
months, and ten days old. To get over this difficulty, some suppose 
that Tacitus wrote LIV, and not LVI ; others, that he wrote pri- 
mum instead of tertium. The first consulate of Caligula was in 790, 
so that the latter supposition is the more likely of the two, and we 
have accordingly followed it in the text. If, then, we take 790 as the 
year of Agricola's birth, he would be fifty-six years, two months, and 
ten days old, and, accordingly, properly in his fifty-seventh year. But 
sexto et quinquagesimo anno mortuus est may mean that he died either 
before or after the completion of his fifty-sixth year. Suetonius 
{Aug. ,26) says of Augustus : " Consulatum vicesimo cetatis anno inva- 
sit" This was when Augustus wanted thirty-six days of having 
completed his twentieth year. Livy (Ep., 119), on the contrary, says 
" Nonum decimum agens," of a youth who was above nineteen years 
and ten months old. Now Agricola was praetor under Nero, and, 
therefore, before June 9th, 821. According to Dio Cassius (lii., 
20), he must have then completed his twenty-ninth year. Taking 
the extreme case, if he was praetor after August 23d, 820, he must 
have been born in 791. But this is impossible, as Caligula was not 
consul in that year ; and, accordingly, we can only suppose that he 
was born in 790, and thus he would be quaestor after the completion 
of his twenty-fifth year, tribune after his twenty-seventh, praetor 
after his twenty-ninth, and consul after his thirty-ninth year. 

Habitum ejus. " His personal appearance." — Decentior quam sub- 
limior fait. "He was rather well-made than tall." Observe that 
by decor habitus is meant the ovtifierpia rod ouftarog. (Boxhor?i, ad 
loc.) — Nihil metus in vultu, &c. "There was nothing in his coun- 
tenance to inspire awe ; a sweetness of expression was its preva- 
lent characteristic." Literally, " abounded." — Medio in spalio In- 
tegra cetatis ereptus. According to Tacitus himself elsewhere (Dial, 
de Or., 17), an integra cetas, or full and complete period of human life, 
was one hundred and twenty years : " Centum et viginti anni ab in- 
teritu Ciceronis in hunc diem colliguntur, unius hominis Getas.'''' — Quan- 
tum ad gloriam. " Yet, as far as glory was concerned," i. e., if his 
life be measured by the glory to which he attained. 

Implevcrat. " He had fully enjoyed." Equivalent, in effect, to 
plene assecutus erat. Compare the Greek usage in the case of uva- 
n'kfjGai (Horn., Od., v., 208), and avaTrXqp&aai (Lucian, Q. H. C. S.» 



NOTES ON THE AGRICOLA. CHAP. XLIV., XLV. 207 

8.) — Speciosce contigerant. " A handsome fortune had fallen to his 
lot." Dio Cassius (lxvi., 20) errs in saying that Agricola lived for 
the remainder of his life in dishonor and in want (ev re artfiia nal 
kv kvdeia). This is contradicted by his not asking for the proconsu- 
lar allowance (chap, xlii.), and by what Tacitus says in chap. vi. — 
Futura effugisse. " Tn having escaped from impending evils." 

Nam sicuti durare in hac beatissimi saculi luce, &c. " For, as he 
used, in our hearing, to divine from auguries, and to express the de- 
sire by many a wish, that he would still be continuing existence amid 
this radiance of a most blissful age. and would behold Trajan em- 
peror, so, on the other hand, has it brought with it a great consolation, 
as regards his untimely death, that he thereby escaped that latter 
period when Domitian no longer now by intervals, and after allowing 
us time to breathe," &c. The common text has quod augurio votis- 
que, &c. We have rejected quod, however, as suggested by "Walch 
and others, and have given what appears to be the best explanation 
of this very difficult, and probably corrupt passage. The use of du- 
rare and videre for se duraturum and visurum may be defended from 
" Ratusque dedecus amoliri" {Ann., xiv., 14) : " Nusquam eas (pe- 
cunias) tutius sanctiusque deponere credentibus" (Liv., xxiv., 18) : 
" An creditis aquo animo iis servire" (Curt., iv., 14, 23). Observe, 
moreover, the zeugma in ominabatur, and compare the explanation 
of Walch, " et auguriis ominabatur et votis concupiscebat." The 
omens here alluded to, and which were said to have foretold the 
elevation of Trajan to the imperial throne, are spoken of by Dio 
Cassius (lxvii., 12) and Pliny (Paneg., 5, 94). They occurred in 
the year 844, and Agricola died in 846. 



CHAPTER XLV. 

Non vidit Agricola obsessam curiam. " Agricola did not live to see 
the senate-house besieged." (Consult Suet., Bom., 10, 11 ; Plin., 
Ep., iii., 11 ; vii., 19 ; Dio Cass., lxvii., 12.) — Tot consularium ccedes. 
Consult Suet., Dom., 10, 15. — Feminarum exsilia et fugas. As, for 
example, Annia, Fannia, Gratilla, Flavia Domitilla, and Pontia Do- 
mitilla. — Carus Metius. One of the most notorious informers 
under Domitian. He is mentioned by Pliny (Ep., i., 5, 11 ; vii., 19, 
27), Martial (xii., 25), and Juvenal (i., 36). According to the scho- 
liast on Juvenal, he was an actor. — Una adhuc victoria censebatur. 
"Was rated as yet for only a single victory," i. e., since as yet but 
one victim had fallen beneath his accusations, no one could at that 
time conceive the mischief which he was shortly about to bring upon 



208 NOTES ON THE AGRICOLA. CHAP. XLV. 

the nation, and hence his power to injure was as yet rated compar- 
atively low. 

Et intra Albanam arcem, &c. " And the counsels of Messalinus 
resounded (as yet) only through the Alban villa, and Massa Baebius 
(himself) was even at that time among the accused." The arx Al- 
bana was Domitian's villa, which he built on the Via Appia, at the 
foot of the Alban Mount. Catullus Messalinus was an informer, 
concerning whom see Juvenal, iv., 113, seqq., and Dio Cassius, 
lxvii., 1. The meaning of Tacitus is, that Messalinus had not yet 
ventured to become an open and public informer at Rome, but that 
his accusations were as yet secret ones, and confined to the privacy 
of the Alban villa. Massa Bebius, or Baebius, was one of the most 
infamous informers of the latter end of the reign of Domitian. He 
is first mentioned in A.D. 70, as one of the procurators in Africa, 
when he betrayed Piso, and is described by Tacitus as "jam tunc 
optimo cuique exitiosus." (Hist., iv., 50.) He was afterward gov- 
ernor of the province of Baetica, which he oppressed so unmercifully 
that he was accused by the inhabitants on his return to Rome. The 
cause of the provincials was pleaded by Pliny the younger and He- 
rennius Senecio, and Massa was condemned in the same year that 
Agricola died, A.D. 93 ; but he seems to have escaped punishment 
by the favor of Domitian, and from this time became one of the in- 
formers and great favorites of the tyrant. 

Nostra manus. " Our own hands," i. e., the hands of one of our 
own body, i. e., a senator. As Publicius Certus, a member of the 
senate, had seized upon Helvidius and led him to prison, Tacitus 
imputes the crime to the whole senatorian order, himself included. 
Tacitus took his seat in the senate as a man of praetorian rank, after 
841, and he uses the expression nostra manus, therefore, although 
absent from Rome at the time when the arrest in question took place. 
Compare, as regards the affair here alluded to, the language of the 
younger Pliny (Ep., ix., 13) : " Inter multa scelera multorum nullum 
atrocius videbatur, quam quod in senatu senator senatori, prcetorius con- 
sulari, reo judex, manus intulisset." — Helvidium. This refers to Hel- 
vidius the younger, and not to Helvidius Priscus, who was banished 
and put to death in exile under the Emperor Vespasian. Helvidius 
the younger was accused under pretence " quasi scenico exodio, sub 
persona Paridis et (Enones, divortium Domitiani cum uxore taxasset." 
(Suet., Bom., 10.) 

Nos Maurici Rusticique visus, &c. " The spectacle of Mauricus 
and Rusticus struck us with horror, Senecio bedewed us with his 
innocent blood." This sentence affords a peculiar instance of the 



NOTES ON THE AGRICOLA. CHAP. XLV. 209 

figure zeugma, where perfudit, as understood in the first clause, be- 
comes equivalent to honore perculit. Mauricus and Arulenus Rusti- 
cus were brothers, united not only by the ties of natural affection, 
but by the virtues of their private character. They were cruelly 
separated in the sight of the senate, when Rusticus was hurried 
away to execution, and Mauricus ordered into banishment. (Com- 
pare Hist., iv., 40; Ann., xvi., 26.) — Senecio. Consult notes on 
chapter ii. 

Videre etadspici. " To behold (him), and to be observed (by him)." 
The peculiar meaning of adspici here, by which it rises in strength 
above videre, is worthy of notice. The reference is to the searching 
and suspicious look of the tyrant, and his watching the expression 
of every countenance to detect some ground of accusation. (Com- 
pare the explanation of Dronke : " ihn zu sehen, und von ihm beo- 
bachtet zu werden.") — Subscriberentur. " Were made subjects of ac- 
cusation against us." Others take the word to mean, simply, " were 
secretly noted down ;" but this wants force in the present instance, 
however well it might answer in other passages. The evil com- 
plained of here was encouraged under Tiberius {Ann., iv., 30), Ca- 
ligula, Claudius, and Nero ; repressed under Vespasian and Titus 
(Hist., iv., 44), but reached its height under Domitian. 

Sujjiceret savus Me vultus et rubor. "That stern countenance, 
with its settled redness, never tired." Domitian's complexion was 
of so deep a red that nothing could add to his natural color, and he 
was, therefore, said by Pliny to be a man of unblushing impudence, 
"in ore impudentia multo rubore suffusa." (Paneg., 48). — Quo . . . 
muniebat. The old reading was a quo. This might, perhaps, mean 
a quo auxilium petens se muniebat. 

Opportunitate mortis. " In the seasonableness of thy death." 
(Compare the language of Cicero, in speaking of the orator Crassus : 
; ' Ego vero te, Crasse, cum vita flore, turn mortis opportunitate, divino 
consilio et ortum et exstinctum arbitror.") — Constans et libens. " With 
firmness and cheerfulness." — Tamquam pro virili portione, &c. " As 
if, so far as lay in thy power, thou wast bestowing innocence upon 
thy sovereign," i. e., as if, so far as lay in thy power, thou didst 
wish, by thy calmness and serenity, to show that Domitian was 
guiltless of thy death. 

Filiceque. Tacitus's wife. This is a correction for jilioque. Agric- 
ola's sons were both dead. — Assidere valetudini. " To sit by thy 
sick-bed." Literally, " by thy sickness." — Nobis tarn longa absentia: 
conditione, &c. " To us wast thou lost four years before, by the cir- 
cumstance of so long an absence." Observe that ante quadriennium 



210 NOTES ON THE AGRICOLA. CKAP. XLV., XLVI. 

is for quadriennio ante. So " multos ante annos" for multis annis ante 
{Ann. j xiv., 9). It appears that Tacitus and his wife, at the time 
of Agricola's death, had been four years absent from Rome, on what 
account we are nowiiere informed. Some critics suppose that he 
was banished by Domitian, but this seems to be without any foun- 
dation. The fact of his absence may be gathered, also, from Pliny 
(Ep., vii., 33) ; for the request which he makes, that Pliny would 
furnish him with a detailed account of Senecio's suit against Bebius, 
was occasioned by his being away at the time from the capital. He 
was present, however, at Senecio's death, in the year 846, w T hen 
he returned from the administration of his praetorian province. 
Omnia sine dubio, &c. " Every mark of attention, beyond a doubt, 

best of parents, was abundantly rendered unto thee, their honored 
object." Literally, " all things, &c, abounded for thy honor," i. e., 
for honoring thee, and making thy last moments comfortable. — Com- 
positus est. " Thou wast laid at rest," i. e., thy ashes were gathered 
into their last resting-place, the funeral urn. The verb componcre, 
like the Greek neptGTeTOieLv, is especially used in this sense. Com- 
pare Orelli (ad Hor., Sat., i., 9, 28) : " Composui, ut irepLGrelTiSiv, 

1 beisetzen,' de sepultura, imprimis de cineribus collectis atque in urna 
conditis." — Aliquid. The reference is to his daughter and Tacitus. 



CHAPTER XLVI. 

Si quis piorum manibus locus. " If there be any abiding-place for 
the shades of the virtuous." The religious opinions of Tacitus par- 
took of the character of his age : he had no strong convictions, no 
settled belief of a moral government of the world ; his love of virtue 
and his abhorrence of vice were purely moral ; they had no refer- 
ence to a future existence. (Compare Ann., iii., 18 ; vi., 22.) On 
the present occasion, in this, one of his earliest productions, he 
hopes, rather than expects, that the souls of the departed may still 
live and be conscious of what is passing on earth ; but in his latest 
writings there are no traces that his hopes or his wishes had ever 
ripened into a belief. 

Ab infirmo desiderio. " From weak regret." — Et immortalibus lau- 
dibus, &c. The text here is very uncertain. We have given the 
reading of the best editions, which is adopted also by Bekker. The 
common text has temporalibus laudibus .... militum decoramus. 
(Consult Walther, ad loc.) — Mmulatu. " By an imitation of thy ex- 
ample." — Fietas. "The affectionate duty." — Famamque ac figuram 
anxmi, &c. " And ever embrace in thought the glorious features of 



NOTES ON THE AGRICOLA. CHAP. XLVI. 211 

his mind rather than those of his person." Observe the hendiadys 
in famam ac Jiguram. Some editors prefer formam acfiguram, which 
is justly condemned by Walch as not in accordance with the his- 
torical style of Tacitus: " Nirgend stehen, in Tacitus 1 s historischen 
Schriften, Dehnungen wie, Gestalt und Bild der Seele." 

Non quia inter cedendum putem imaginibus. "Not because I think 
that we should reject those resemblances (of the departed)." Lit- 
erally, " not because I think that we must put our veto upon those 
resemblances." The verb inter cedo, here employed in its figurative 
sense, refers properly to the interposing of a veto on the part of a 
magistrate who has the right so to do. (Consult Diet, Ant., s. v. 
Intercessio.) 

Non per alienam materiam et artem. " Not by means of any foreign 
material and through another's skill," i. e., through the artist's skill. 
— Manet mansurumque est. " Remains, and is destined to remain, in 
the hearts of men, in the eternal lapse of ages, in the fame of his 
achievements." Observe that fama rerum is only another designa- 
tion for history. 



INDEX OF PLACES IN TACITUS, 

WHICH ARE QUOTED OR REFERRED TO IN BOTTICHER's REMARKS ON 
HIS STYLE. 



ANN ALES. 





BOOK I. 


Chap. 


Page 


1 


xlviii., li. (bis.) 


2 


xxvii., xxxi. 


3 


xliv., 1. 


5 


xxxii. 


6 


xxxvii., xl. 


7 xxxvii., xliv., xlv. 


8 


xl. 


10 


xxxii. 


11 


xxxix. 


12 


xlii., xlv. 


21 


xxxviii. 


27 


liii., liv. 


28 


xl. 


31 


xlv., lv. 


33 


xxxvii. 


35 


xli., xliv. 


39 


xxx., xlii. 


40 


xlvi. 


44 


liii. 


47 


xliv. 


51 


xxxvi. 


54 


lv. 


55 


xlii. 


57 


xli., xlii. 


58 


xxxvi., xliii. 


59 


xli., liii. 


61 


lv. 


62 


xxxi. 


63 


xxxviii. 


65 


xliv. 


68 


xxix. 


73 


xliv. 


74 


xxix., xxxv. 


79 


liv. 


81 


xxix. 




BOOK II. 


1 


XXXV. 


2 


xxix. 


3 


xxx. 


4 


liii. 



ANN ALES. 

BOOK II. 

Chap. Page 

5 xxx. 

7 xxx. 

15 * xxxii. 

20 xxx. 

25 lv. (bis.) 

27 xxxviii. 

32 xxxiv. 

33 xxxiv. 

34 xxxix. (bis.) 

38 xl. 

39 xxxiv., xlii., li., liv. 

40 xxxiv., xlii. 
44 xxxvii. 

46 1. 

47 liv. (bis.) 
54 xxxv. 

56 lv. 

57 xxxvi., Hi. 
59 xxxv. 
62 xxx. 
64 1. 

70 xxxi. 

71 xxxvii. 
73 xliii. 

81 xxxviii. 

82 xliv., xlv. 





BOOK III. 


2 


xxxiv 


5 


xxx 


8 


xxx 


14 


1 


19 


xlii., xlv 


20 


xxx 


24 


xli 


26 


xlv 


30 


xxxi., xlv 


31 


xxxi 


34 


xxvi 


38 


xxvii., xxxviii 


39 


xxxvi 



ANN ALES. 

BOOK III. 

Chap. Page 

40 xxxix., li. 

42 xxxii. 

43 xxxvii. 

50 xxvii. 
52 li. 
55 xxxiii. (note.) 

59 li. 

63 lvi. 

64 liii. 
72 xxv. 

BOOK IV. 

1 xxviii., xxix. 

2 xxxv., xxxvii. 

3 xxxvii., xl. 

5 xli. 

6 li. 
9 liii. 

1 1 xxix. 

12 li. 
15 lv. 

19 lvi. 

20 xxxvii. 

21 xxvii. 
23 li. 
25 xliii., liv. 

28 xxxix., li. 

29 xxxiv. 
31 xxxv., lv. 
32-33 xxiv. (note.) 
33 xxvi. 
38 xxvii., xl. 

40 xxxi., xxxix., xlii. 

41 xxv. 

42 lvi. 

44 xxxi. 

51 xxxi. 

52 lii. 

55 liii. 

56 liii. 

60 xliv., li. 



214 






INDEX. 








ANNALES.. 




ANNALES. 




ANNALES. 




BOOK IV. 




BOOK 


XII. 




BOOK XV. 


Chap. 


Page 


Chap. 




Page 


Chap 


Page 


61 


XXX. 


12 




li. 


14 


xli., 1. 


62 


xxxvii. 


14 




xxx. 


15 


liv. 


67 


xxix. 


17 




xxxv. 


20 


lii. 






18 




xxxv. 


23 


xxxvii. 




BOOK V. 

li. 


25 




xli., lvi. 


27 


xxxi. 


1 


26 




xxxv. 


*32 


xxvi. 


9 


xxxii. 


29 




xxix. 


36 


xxxv. 




BOOK VI. 


35 




liv. 


38 


lv. 


3 


xxxix., xl. 


37 




xxxviii. 


44 


xli. 


7 


xliv. 


46 




xxxvi. 


50 


xxxi. 


9 


liii. 


49 




lv. 


59 


xxix. 


10 


xliv. 


50 




liii. 


62 


lv. 


12 


xxv., lii. 


51 


xxxi., xxxvii. 


73 


xlviii. 


21 

22 
24 


xliii. 
xxxi. 

xliii. 


55 

58 
65 




XXIX. 

lv. 
xxxii. 


7 
9 


BOOK XVI. 

xxvii. 
liv. 


27 


xl. 




BOOK 


XIII. 


12 


xxvii. 


32 


xxxiii., xl. 


11 




xxxi. 


13 


lv. 


33 


xxix. 


15 




xxx., lii. 


21 


xxxix. 


35 


xxix. 

xliv. 


17 




lv. 






36 








21 




xxix. 






37 


xxxvi. 


23 




1. 




HISTORIC. 


38 


xxxiv. 


33 




lv. 




BOOK I. 


40 
42 
43 


XXXV. 

lvi. 
xxxvi. 


40 




xxx. 


2 


xlix., lv. 


41 
44 




xliv., liv. 
xxxiv. 


3 

8 


xlv. 
xliii. 


44 


xxxi., xxxvi. 


47 






51 


lv. 




xxxi. 


10 


xxvii., xxviii. 




50 


xxxii;, xxxix. 


12 


xxx. 




BOOK XI. 


56 




xliii. 


16 


xxxvi., xxxviii. 


1 


liii. 








17 


lv. 


4 


xxxvii. 




BOOK 


XIV. 


20 


xxxii. 


10 


xxvi., xxxviii. 


2 




xxxii. 


46 


xxxix., xli. 


12 


xxxiv. 


3 




xxxvi. 


48 


xxxviii. 


16 


xxvi., xxviii. 


4 


xxviii., xxxii. j 


50 


xlv. 


20 


xxxvi. 






xxxv. 


53 


xxvii., xxix., 


23 


xxxv., xl., 1. 


5 




xli. 




xxxix. 


24 


XXXV. 


8 




xliv., xlv. 


59 


xli. 


25 


xli. 


14 




xlv. 


63 


xli. 


29 


li. 


15 




li. 


64 


xxxviii. 


30 


xxxii. 


30 




xxix. 


67 


xlii. 


31 


xlix. (note.) 


33 




lv. 


73 


xlv. 


32 


xxx., xxxi. 


38 




xxix. 


76 


xxxiv. 


34^ 


xxvii. (bis.) 


39 




xxxvii. 


80 


lv. 


35 


xxxii. 


40 




xlv. 


88 


xxviii. 


37 


xxxviii., 1. 


44 
49 




xlv. 
1. 


90 


lii. 




BOOK XII. 


55 




xxviii. 




BOOK II. 


7 


xxviii. 


59 




xxxvi. 


4 


xlix. 


10 


xli. 


61 




xxxv., 1. 


5 


xlix. 











INDEX. 




215 




HISTORIC. 




HISTORIC. 




GERMANIA. 




BOOK 


II. 




BOOK IV. 




BOOK V. 


Chap. 




Page 


Chap 


Page 


Chap 


Page 


17 




xxxii. 


9 


xxvi. 


39 


xlviii. 


18 




xxxix. 


15 


xxxvii. 


40 


liv. 


22 




xxix. 


16 


xxxviii. 


43 


xxxvi. 


29 




xliv. 


17 


1. 


46 


xliii. 


32 




xl. 

xli., xliii. 


23 

32 


xxxv. 

xxviii. 






56- 




70 




xxxiv. 


46 


xliv. 




AGRICOLA. 


71 




Ivi. 


48 


xxxvi. 


2 


xxxiii. (note.) 


74 




xl. 


52 


1., lii., Ivi. 


3 


xxxiii. (note.) 


76 




liv. 


55 


lii. 


4 


xxix. 


82 




xliv., lii. 


59 


xlii. 


8 


lii. 


87 




lv. 


71 


xlix. 


9 


xxxix. 


95 




Ivi. 


75 


xlv. 


11 


1. 


96 




xxxix. 


76 


xxxvi. 


12 


xlii. 


100 




xxv i. 




BOOK V. 


16 
17 


xlvi. 
xxxix. 




BOOK 


in. 


1 


xxxiv. 


18 


xl., xlii., liii. 


2 




xxxi. 


6 


liv. 


19 


xliv., li. 


5 


xxviii. (bis), 1. 


10 


lv. 


22 xxxiv., xxxix., lv. 


7 




xxviii. 


12 


liv. 




(bis.) 


10 


XXXV 


., xxxvii. 


15 


xxxvii. 


25 


lii., liv. 


18 




xlix. 






33 
35 
41 


xliv. 

xlv. 

lv. 


20 
26 




xxxvi. 

xl. 




GERMANIA. 


28 




xli. 


2 


xxxv., xliii. 


43 


xxix. 


30 




xxvi. 
xxxv. 


5 
6 


liii. 
1. 






40 




41 




xliii. 


7 


xxxvii. 


DIALO 


44 




xli. 


9 


liv. 




TORIBUS. 


49 




xlii. 


18 


xlviii. 


3 


lii. 


50 




xxxvi. 


20 


xxxi. 


5 


xlvi. 


52 




liii. 


27 


lv. 


6 


xxxii. 


55 




xxxiv. 


30 


xxxii , lv. 


10 


liii. 


58 


XXX 


., xxxvii. 


32 


xlviii. 


18 xxiv. (note),xxvii. 


59 




xxix. 


33 xxxii. (note), xlvi., 


21 


xxxiv. 


60 




XXX. 




lii. 


22 


xxiv. (note), xl. 


80 




xxvi. 


34 


xxviii., xxxvi., 


25 


xli. 


84 




xl. 




xxxvii. 


29 


xxxvii. 








35 


xxix. 


31 


xxxii., 1. 




BOOK 


IV. 


36 


xliii. 


34 


xlvi. 


4 




xxxi. 


38 


xlvi. 


40 


xlv. 



GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX 

TO 

THE GERMANIA. 



A. 

Abnoba Mons. A name given to that part of the Black Forest 
where the Danube commences its course, and which lies opposite 
the town of Augusta Rauracorum, now Augst. A stone altar, with 
ABNOBA inscribed, was discovered in the Black Forest in 1778 ; 
and in 1784 a pedestal of white marble was found in the Duchy of 
Baden, bearing the words DIANAE ABNOBAE. These remains 
of antiquity, besides throwing light on the situation of the ancient 
Abnoba Mons, settle also the orthography of the name, which some 
commentators incorrectly write Arnoba. (Compare La Germanic 
de Tacite, par Panckoucke, p. 4, and the Atlas to the same work, 
Planche Deuxieme) . . . . . . . . . c. 1 

^Estyi. A nation of ancient Germany, whose name still remains 
in that of the Esthcn. They inhabited Prussia, Livonia, and Cour- 
land. Some think that the name merely means " the people of the 
East" c. 45 

Albis. The River Elbe, which, according to Tacitus, rose among 
the Hermunduri. This was the easternmost stream in Germany 
with which the Romans became acquainted in the course of their 
expeditions ; and they knew it, moreover, only in the northern part 
of its course. The only Roman who passed this stream with an 
army was L. Domitius Ahenobarbus, A.U.C. 744, and though he 
made no further progress, yet the passage of the Albis obtained for 
him the insignia of a triumph. The name is said to be derived from 
the old northern term elf or elfa, which, in the early German, be- 
came Alba or Elba, and means " a river." Thus Becker remarks 
{Organism, der Sprache, p. 96), " der nordische Gemeinname elfa (Fluss) 
ist in dem deutschen Elbe Eigenname geworden." (Compare Meidin- 
ger, Etym. Wdrterbnch, p. 533 ; Ersch und Gruber, Encyclop., ii., p. 
328 ; and Graff, ahd. Sprachschatz, i., p. 243) . . . c. 41 

Alpes r^etic^e. The Raetian Alps, that portion of the chain 

K 



218 GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 

which separated Italy from Raetia, and which extended from the 
St. Gothard, whose numerous peaks bore the name of Adula, to 
Mount Brenner, in the Tyrol. The Lepontine Alps, which commence 
immediately west of the Rsetian, form in one sense a part of them, 
so that Adula, in fact, belongs to both c. 1 

Angli. A German tribe, the earliest record of whom we find in 
Tacitus (Germ., c. 40). But this author only mentions their name, 
states a few particulars relative to their religion, and intimates that 
they were a branch of the Suevi. He appears to have known very 
little about them. They are not mentioned in the expeditions of 
Drusus and Tiberius, and, therefore, probably, were at that time on 
the east of the Elbe. Ptolemy places them on the west, in what is 
now Magdeburg. D'Anville has in his map assigned to them the 
same district which they occupied in the fifth century, before their 
emigration to England, and parts of which the modern Angles still 
occupy. He allots to them the greatest portion of modern Schleswig, 
and some part of Holstein, making the German Ocean their western 
boundary, the Saxons their nearest neighbors on the south, the Va- 
rini on the southeast, and the Jutes on the north. It is impossible 
to fix with accuracy any boundaries for the Angli from the account 
given by Tacitus ; but his statement appears perfectly reconcilable 
with D'Anville's map and the Saxon Chronicle. About the middle 
of the fifth century (449) a large body of Saxons and Angles, led by 
Hengist and Horsa, sailed over to England, and established perma- 
nent settlements in the island. The Angles, however, seem to have 
prevailed in numbers or influence, for it was they that gave the 
name to their new country, Angel-land, Anglia (England), though it 
was sometimes called Saxonia Transmarina. The name Anglo- 
Saxons, which comprises both Angles and Saxons, was invented by 
later historians for the sake of convenience. (Penny Cyclop., vol. 
ii., p. 24; xx., p. 492. — Mannert, vol. hi., p. 294) . . . c. 40 

Angrivarii. A German tribe dwelling on the east of the Visur- 
gis, or Weser, between the Cauci and Cherusci, and extending over 
a part of Lilneberg and Calenberg to the Steinhuder See, which formed 
the boundary between them and the Cherusci, and on both sides of 
the River Aller. The Leine seems to have formed their southeastern 
boundary. On the northeast they reached to the neighborhood of 
the Elbe. It appears that they dwelt, also, on the west of the Vi- 
surgis (Ann., ii., 8). Traces of their name are still found near the 
Elbe, in Angern, Engern, Engershausen, Angermunde, &c. (Com- 
pare Mannert, vol. hi., p. 278, seqq.) . . . . c. 33, 34 
Aravisci. A German tribe, placed by some between the Arabo 



GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 219 

(Raab) and the Danube. Mannert makes them to have dwelt in the 
easternmost angle, between the Danube and the Saave (vol. iii., p. 
569 c. 28 

Arii. A German tribe, supposed to have lived by the Sudetan 
Mountains, in the neighborhood of Arnsdorf and Arnsberg. Their 
name appears to contain the same root which we find in the names 
of many nations of the Indo- Germanic family ; and it is not im- 
probable that all the different branches of the Indo-Germanic race 
may have originally been called by this name. According to He- 
rodotus (vii., 61, 62), the Medes were originally called Arii, and the 
Persians Artcei. These names are identical with the Sanscrit word 
Arya (which means "honorable," "entitled to respect"), by w T hich, 
in the ancient writings of the Hindus, the followers of the Brahman- 
ical law are designated (see Rosen, in " Quarterly Journal of Ed- 
ucation," vol. ix., p. 336). India Proper is called in the most ancient 
Sanscrit works Arya-varta, (" holy land)." The same name was re- 
tained in the province of Aria and Ariana (called in the Zend lan- 
guage Airyane), whence the modern Persian name Iran is deriv- 
ed . . . c. 43 

Asciburgium. The modern Asburg, on the left bank of the Rhine, 
or the neighboring hamlet of Essenberg. (Consult notes on chap, 
iii.) c. 3 

Aviones. A German tribe, of whose position nothing certain is 
known. They probably lived near Lauenburg. (Compare Mannert, 
vol. iii., p. 337) c. 40 

B. 

Bastarn^e. Vid. Peucini. 

Batavi. (Quantity of the penult doubtful, but more frequently 
long than short.) A German tribe, who occupied the island formed 
by the Vahalis (Waal) and Mosa (Meuse), and also that formed by 
the northern arm of the Rhine (or Rhine of Leyden), the Vahalis 
and Mosa after their confluence, and the ocean. They seem, also, 
from the language of Tacitus (Germ., c. 29), to have occupied a 
small tract on the banks of the Rhine, not included in the insula 
Batavorum, as it is called by Caesar (B. G., iv., 10). The Batavi, 
therefore, were the inhabitants of South Holland and some adjacent 
parts. They became the allies of the Romans under Augustus. 
Drusus, the brother of Tiberius, dug the canal called Fossa Drusiana, 
which joins the Rhine and Yssel. On the northwestern part of 
the island dwelt another people of the same origin as the Batavi, 
the Canninefates {Hist., iv., 15), whose chief town was Lugdunum 



220 GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 

Batavorum, now Leyden. The chief towns of the Batavi were Ba- 
tavodurum, afterward called Noviomagus, now Nymegen or Nimue- 
gen; Arenacum, now Arnheim; and Trajectum, now Utrecht. The 
name Batavi is preserved in that of Betuwe, the name of the district 
included between the Rhine of Leyden, the Waal, and the Lek. 
After the death of Galba, when the army on the Rhine followed Vi- 
tellius to Rome, Claudius Civilis roused the Batavi to a revolt, which 
was shortly afterward suppressed. They were employed by Agric- 
ola in his wars in Britain (Agric, 36). The changes which have 
taken place in the land in this quarter render the geography some- 
what difficult. In the time of Tacitus, most of the Zuyder Zee was 
dry land. The rivers, especially the Rhine, have very much altered 

their courses c. 29 

Bon. The settlements of the once powerful Boii are found in 
Gaul, and along both sides of the Danube from its source eastward, 
probably as far as the mouth of the Enns ; toward the south, stretch- 
ing to the mountains which separate Tyrol from Bavaria. The east- 
ern part of Swabia, with the whole of Bavaria and Bohemia, which 
took their names from them (Bavaria having been originally Boiaria), 
belonged to them. They also occupied part of Moravia, and had 
settlements on the banks of the Po. Whether Gaul or Germany 
was their original country is uncertain : if the former, it would seem 
that they accompanied the first Gallic migration mentioned by Livy 
and others, and followed Segovesus into Germany, settling in Bo- 
hemia ; but the facts that, for the most part, the tide of migration 
set in westward, and that Bohemia has retained its name to this 
day, seem to point to Germany as their original home. From Bo- 
hemia they were expelled by the Marcomanni, and settled in Nori- 
cum and Bavaria, where Boiodurum {Innstadt) took its name from 
them. At some period or other, but when is uncertain, they crossed 
the Alps, and established themselves in Italy, between the Tarus, 
the Silarus, and the Apennines. They were subdued by the Ro- 
mans under Scipio Nasica, and afterward removed to the banks of 
the Brave. After this they were almost subdued in wars with the 
Getas, and an extensive tract in this part was called Deserta Boio- 
rum (Plin., hi., 24). Some of the Boii accompanied Brennus in his 
invasion of Greece, and joined that part of his army which passed 
into Asia Minor, and settled in the country called from them Gala- 
tia, where one of the three divisions of the people bore the name 
Tolistoboii. Some of the Boii also joined the Helvetii when they 
migrated into Gaul, and were allowed by Caesar to settle among 
the ^Edui. (See Plin., hi., 20, 21 ; iv., 32. Polyb., i., 17 ; ii., 20.) 



GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 221 

Boiemum, or Boihemum, probably means, "the home of the Boii" 
(heim, heimath). Some, however, suppose that by Boiemum is 
meant what Csesar calls oppidum Boiorum (B. G., vii., 9) in Gallia, 
now Beaujolois c. 28, 42 

Bructeri. (Called Bovadnrepot by Ptolemy.) A German tribe, 
who, in all their wars with the Romans, never changed their seats. 
Toward the west, they reached to the Vech ; toward the south, to 
the Lippe ; toward the east, almost to the Weser ; and toward the 
north, they bordered on the Frisii and Cauci. Along the Lippe, 
their territories extended probably from Lippstadt to Haltern ( Strabo, 
vii., p. 291) ; and that they reached eastward at least as far as Lipp- 
stadt, we gather from Tacitus. (Ann., i., 60.) For some time, 
while the Romans were superior in this quarter, they seem to have 
retired from the Lippe ; but they afterward returned. The Bructeri 
were divided into the Bructeri Majores, who dwelt on the east, and 
the Bructeri Minores, who dwelt on the west of the Amisia, or Ems. 
They remained in their old settlements till the Cherusci, under the 
common name of Franks, united all the tribes of this part into one 
league, and henceforth we find them on the banks of the Rhine. 
Toward the end of the first century, they were subdued by the Cham- 
avi and Angrivarii, and, according to Tacitus, extirpated. But in 
this he is most probably mistaken ; for we find the Roman com- 
mander, Spurinna, engaged with them in the reign of Trajan ; and 
in later times they appear as a powerful people among the Franks. 
Their name was finally lost when they were overpowered by the 
Saxons. It appears for the last time in a letter of Pope Gregory 
III., about the year 720, where they are called Borthari. Their prin- 
cipal towns were Osnabruga, MeSloI&viov (Meteln), Boyadiov (Bo- 
cholt), and LrepeovrLov (Steinfurt). (Eumenii Paneg. Const, diet., 
c. 12, 13 ; Nazarii Paneg., c. 18 ; Greg. Turon., ii., c. 9 ; Bed., Hist. 
Eccles., iv., 11 ; Othlon., i., c. 37 ; as quoted by Mannert, vol. iii., p. 
160, seqq.) c. 33 

Buri. A German tribe living near the sources of the Viadrus 
(Oder) and Vistula, and extending as far as Briga and Cracow, or 
near to Troppau, in Silesia. In conjunction, first with the Daci, and 
afterward with the Marcomanni, they waged war with Trajan, M. 
Aurelius, and Commodus. (Dio Cass., lxviii., 8 ; Id., lxxi., 18 ; Id., 
lxxii., 2, 3) c. 43 

C. 

Catti. A German tribe, separated from the Cherusci by the 
Forest of Bacenis (Cces., B. G., vi., 10). It is doubtful wheth- 



222 GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 

er by this is meant the Harz Mountains, or the west part of the 
Thiiringer Wald. The latter is the more probable. In the Mid- 
dle Ages, the forest extending from Fulda to the Thiiringer Wald 
bore the name of Buchonia. The Sala Franconiae, with the Spes- 
sart and Rh'dn Gebirge, formed the boundary between them and 
the Hermunduri {Annal., xiii., 57). On the east their territories 
were bounded by the Werra. On the south they reached to the 
Mayn and the Hercynian Forest. After they took possession of the 
district abandoned by the Ubii when they crossed the Rhine, their 
territory extended to that river, between the Lahn and the Mayn. 
On the north they bordered on a branch of the Cauci, so that the 
Weser formed their boundary in this direction. On the west the 
Tencteri were their neighbors ; so that in this quarter they reached 
to the Mount Abnoba of Ptolemy (see c. 28). Thus their territory 
comprehended that of the modern Hessians, Fulda, the earldoms of 
Hanau and Isenburg, so much of Franconia as lies north of the Mayn 
to the mouth of the Saale, part of Nassau, and the eastern portion 
of the Duchy of Westphalia. Their principal towns were Novaicuov 
{Nunhus), in Westphalia ; MnTionavoc {Melschede) ; and Tpav'iovuptov 
{Grevener). Their name is the same as that of the Hessians: c in 
Latin becomes h in German ; as in caput, haupt ; canis, hund ; canna- 
bis, hanf, &c. : 5 and t are freely interchangeable ; as in das, that ; es, 
it ; wasser, water, &c. The Catti were defeated by Drusus ; but 
some time afterward they destroyed Varus and his legions. In the 
reign of Tiberius, Germanicus overran the country ; but they con- 
tinued in arms against the Romans for many years after, and aided 
the revolt of the Batavi in the reign of Vitellius {Ann., i., 55, 56 ; ii., 
7, 25. Hist., iv., 37). They were also engaged in war with the Her- 
munduri, by whom they were nearly extirpated {Ann., xiii., 57), 
and with the Cherusci {G. 36). (Compare Mannert, vol. iii., p. 183, 

seqq.) '. . c. 29, 30, 31, 35, 36, 38 

Cauci. A German tribe, who dwelt along the ocean from the 
Amisia {Ems) to the Albis {Elbe), and reached southward some- 
what below what is now Ostfriesland, Oldenburg, and Bremen, al- 
though along the Weser these boundaries often changed. Pliny and 
Ptolemy divide them into the greater and the less : though Tacitus 
does not make this distinction here, he alludes to it in his Annals 
(xi., 19) ; and we gather from him that the Cauci major es dwelt be- 
tween the Amisia and the Visurgis ; accordingly, the Cauci minores 
must be looked for between the Visurgis and the Albis. Ptolemy 
assigns them rather narrower limits ; as in his time the western 
Cauci were more confined than in the age of Tacitus. The Cauci 



GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 223 

were friends of the Romans in the expedition of Drusus, and still 
more so in that of Tiberius (Ann., i., 60 ; ii., 17). Even after the 
disaster of Varus, they continued their friendship, and Germanicus 
made ail his expeditions against the Cherusci from this side. But 
here, again, the Romans roused the enmity of their allies, by pur- 
suing the same policy as in the case of the Frisii. Under Gannas- 
cus, they crossed the Rhine, and made incursions on the Roman 
province of Germania Inferior (Ann., xi., 18) ; but were repulsed by 
Corbulo. They afterward aided Civilis in the Batavian war (Hist., 
iv., 79 ; v., 19). Even after the expulsion of the Romans, they con- 
tinued the enemies of the Cherusci, and felt themselves powerful 
enough to drive this people from the west bank of the Weser, while 
they ejected the Ansibarii (Aim., xiii., 55), and perhaps some more 
southerly branches of the Cherusci, from their possessions along the 
Weser ; and it is only after this that the remark of Tacitus applies 
to them, that the southern angle of their territory bordered on one 
side on the Cherusci, and on the other on the Catti. But the Lan- 
gobardi, pressing westward to the Rhine, established themselves in 
all the lands which had belonged to the Cherusci and their allies ; 
and in the time of Ptolemy the Cauci were reduced within their 
original boundaries. Ptolemy (ii., 11) mentions, as their towns, 
$a6ipavov (Brema, or Varel), AevQava (Luneburg, Lauenburg, Bux- 
tehuda, or Lubbethene), TeK&ia (Oldenbrook, Elsfleth, or Zetel), Tov- 
?u<j>povpdov (Verda, or Dohlbergen), ^carovravda (Utendc), Tevdepcov 
(Detern). Their name is still preserved in that of their harbor, Cux- 
haven. (Compare Mannert, iii., p. 275, seqq.) . . . c. 35, 36 

ChamIvi. A German tribe, who originally occupied the tract 
which extended northward to the Vech, eastward to the Ems, south- 
ward to the Lippe, and westward to the eastern mouth of the Rhine. 
At a later period they lived between the Weser and the Harz Mount- 
ains, in Eichfeld, and a part of Grubenhagen and Hohenstein. In the 
third century they are again found on the Rhine, as members of 
the Frank league ; and in the next century they spread themselves 
along the Waal. Tacitus has most probably committed a mistake 
in placing them in the country of the Bructeri. (Compare Mannert, 
iii., p. 151) c. 33, 34 

Chasuari. A German tribe, whose settlements are placed by 
Ptolemy on the western side of the Weser, between the Haase and 
the sources of the Lippe, in Osnaburg and Paderborn. They were 
a tribe of the Cherusci ; and afterward appear among the Franks, 
on the western part of the Lower Rhine, in the dukedom of Gelders. 
They were conquered by Tiberius and Germanicus. (Veil. Pater c, 
ii,, 118:. Mannert, iii., p. 179) . . . . . . c. 34 



224 GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 

Cherusci. The German tribe of the Cherusci must be carefully 
distinguished from the league of the Cherusci. As a tribe, their 
possessions lay in the Harz Mountains, and on both sides of them, 
but chiefly on the south, where the northwest part of the Thuringer 
Wald separated them from the Catti. The Sala (Saale) probably 
formed their eastern boundary ; so that their territory comprehend- 
ed the Duchies of Brunswick and Magdeburg, with the Principalities 
of Halberstadt, Schwarzburg, Grubenhagen, and Calenberg. The 
name Harz is derived by some from that of Cherusci : in the Peu- 
tingerian Table they are called Crherstini. (See PtoL, ii., 11 ; Cces., 
B. G., vi., 10 ; Strabo, vii., 1, 3, 4.) Ptolemy places them only on 
the south side of the Harz Mountains ; but the expeditions of Ger- 
manicus show that they dwelt on the north side also. A wall built 
between the Steinhuder See and the Weser separated them from the 
Angrivarii (Ann., ii., 19). The Alter probably formed their bound- 
ary on the north and east, up to the point where it meets the Leine. 
They were at first in alliance with Rome ; and Arminius commanded 
a squadron of German cavalry in the Roman army, and so far dis- 
tinguished himself that he was made a Roman knight. Afterward, 
roused by this leader, the Cherusci joined the Catti and others in 
the attack upon Varus ; for a history of which, see Ann., i., 59-63 ; 
ii., 9-26. They were afterward defeated by Germanicus ( Ann., ii., 
17). Their strength, however, was not much broken ; for the fol- 
lowing year they defeated the Marcomanni under Maroboduus, and 
were now, through the courage and conduct of Arminius, the first 
people in Germany. The Cheruscan league included the Dulgibini, 
Ansibarii, Chasuari, Chamavi, Tubantes, and Marsi. These and 
other small tribes are frequently called Cherusci. Thus the land 
between the sources of the Lippe and the Weser, in all the accounts 
of the transactions before the defeat of Varus, is called the land of 
the Cherusci. But the power and influence which Arminius had 
acquired roused the jealousy of other princes, and he was murdered 
by some of his own family. With him fell the greatness of the Che- 
rusci. Internal dissensions ruined the whole family of their ancient 
princes. In the reign of Claudius they sent to Rome to ask, as king, 
Italicus, a descendant of the family of Arminius, who was born at 
Rome. Being, however, looked upon as an alien, he was driven 
out, but was reinstated by the Langobardi ( Ann., xi., 16, 17). Their 
league was speedily dissolved ; feuds arose between them and the 
neighboring tribes, and a considerable portion of their territory was 
wrested from them by the Langobardi, and they were driven from 
the west of the Thuringer Wald by the Catti. Ptolemy mentions, 



GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 225 

as towns belonging to them, Molovlov, Aovtttci, 'Apy&ia, Bucovpdiov, 
&c. ; the sites of which can not be determined with any accuracy. 

(Compare Mannert, iii., p. 205, seqq.) c. 36 

Cimbjri. The accounts of the ancients respecting the seats of the 
Cimbri, or Cimmerii, abound in uncertainties and contradictions. 
Strabo places them on the ocean, by the Elbe ; Mela, in the islands 
of the Baltic ; Pliny, to the east of the Elbe, and on the peninsula 
which took its name from them ; Tacitus places them in the same 
quarter; Ptolemy, at the extremity of the Cimbric Chersonese.- 
But, upon examination, it does not appear that they ever inhabited 
these parts. The Greeks first became acquainted with them on the 
northern coast of the Pontus Euxinus. They were driven from this 
quarter, and disappeared from the knowledge of the Greeks, who 
fabled that they dwelt on the shores of the Northern Ocean, in a 
land shrouded in perpetual night. Pytheas, who circumnavigated 
the greater part of the northwest of Europe, saw a large peninsula, 
where the long nights and intense cold in winter seemed to accord 
with the poetical descriptions of the land of the Cimmerii, and so 
assigned this country as f heir abode. In this he was followed by 
most of the ancient geographers : Strabo sets them down as one 
of the tribes with which they were best acquainted ; although in the 
next sentence he acknowledges that all beyond the Elbe was totally 
unknown to the Greeks (vii., p. 451, Ed. Cas., 294). No mention 
is made of the Cimbri in the expeditions of Drusus and Germani- 
cus ; and though the fleet of the latter discovered the Cimbric Cher- 
sonese of Pytheas, they found no Cimbrians dwelling in it, nor did 
it bear a name derived from that people. Ptolemy places them at 
the extremity of it, merely to fill up a gap, as he has no other tribe 
to fix in this locality. Their real country lay, probably, on the north- 
east side of Germany : it was on this side that they invaded Ger- 
many, and were opposed by the Boii, at that time the inhabitants of 
Bohemia. Boiovg rbv *Y>pnvvLov dpv/ubv olkelv. Tovg ds Klfj,6povg 6p- 
firjaavTag km rbv tottov tovtov unoKpovadevrag vivo rCov Botov eirl rbv 
"larpov, k. r. 1. (Strabo, vii., p. 293, edit. Casaub.) Together with 
the Teutones they entered Gaul, where they were joined by the 
Ambrones. With their combined forces they then invaded Spain, 
but were repulsed by the Celtiberi. The Teutones and Ambrones 
then made an irruption into Italy, where they were defeated by Ma- 
rius (B.C. 102). A part of the Cimbri, who had gone into Helvetia, 
were' there joined by the Tigurini ; these made another attack upon 
Italy, and defeated Catulus ; but were at last routed by Marius (B.C. 
101). The remnant of them is said to have settled in Helvetia. 

K2 



226 GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 

Some of the Boii appear to have accompanied them in their inva- 
sion of Italy. Their name is still preserved in the national appel- 
lation of the Welsh, Cymry. It is very difficult to decide whether 
the Cimbri were a Germanic or a Celtic tribe. The two races were 
not carefully distinguished by the Romans : Tacitus called them 
Germans ; but the Cymry certainly are not descendants of the Ger- 
mans : their language is a Celtic dialect. In the war with Marius 
they were led by a Celtic commander, and the description of their 
arms points to the same origin. Yet we find them united with the 
Teutones. There is a similar difficulty in the case of the Belgae. 
For an account of the Cimbri and their expeditions, see Liv., Ep., 
63-68. Appian, De Rebus Celt, et III c. 37 

D. 

Daci. A tribe living between the Danube and the Carpathian 
Mountains, about the Rivers Tibiscus and Marisus ( Teis and Ma- 
rosch), in the upper part of Hungary, Transylvania, Moldavia, Wal- 
lachia, and Bessarabia. The first expedition of the Emperor Trajan 
was against the Daci, headed by their king, Decebalus ; and the war, 
which lasted nearly five years, ended in their submission, A.D. 105 
{Dio Cass., lxviii., 6, sqq.), to the Roman power. One of their chief 
towns, Sarmizegethusa, was afterward called Ulpia Trajani, in 
memory of the victory which was gained. In A.D. 250, Dacia was 
overrun and conquered by the Goths, to whom it was afterward re- 
signed by the Emperor Aurelian. Domitian celebrated his pretended 
exploits against the Dacians by assuming the title Dacicus (Juv., 
Sat., vi., 204) . . . ... c. 1 

Danubius. The largest river in Europe except the Rha, or Volga, 
called by the Germans Donau, by the Hungarians Buna, and by the 
English Danube. Strabo and Pliny make it rise in the chain of 
Mons Abnoba, a part of the Black Forest. According to modern ac- 
counts, it originates on the eastern declivity of the Black Forest, 
about twenty-four miles from the banks of the Rhine. Its course 
is calculated to be about one thousand seven hundred and seventy 
miles before it enters the Black Sea, and it receives sixty navi- 
gable rivers, the largest of which is the CEnus, or Inn, and one 
hundred and twenty smaller streams. As regards the etymology 
of the name, it may be remarked, that Bayer (Commt. Acad. Petrop., 
vol. ix., p. 375) supposes an early people to have existed, in whose 
language a word like Tan, Ton, Don, or Dunai may have signified 
"water," from which were gradually derived such names of rivers 
as Tanais, Danaperis, Danaster, Danubius, Don, Eridan-us, Rhodan- 



GEOGRAPHICAL, INDEX. 227 

us, &c. It is a curious confirmation, in part, at least, of this hy- 
pothesis, that the Ossetes, a Caucasian tribe, have the word Don in 
their language as a general term for "water," "river," &c, and 
designate all mountain streams by this appellation. (Compare 
Lehrberg, Untersuchungen, &c, Peter sb., p. 400, and Ritter, Vorhalle, 
p. 304) c. 1, 29, 41, 42 

DecumXtes Agri. A name applied to lands conquered by the 
Romans, in which, for the sake of security, that no hostile tribe 
might dwell close to their borders, they allowed Gauls or Roman 
soldiers to settle, who were charged with the payment of a tithe 
(decima) to the Romans. The Romans very commonly exacted a 
tithe from those who occupied the public lands : the greater part of 
Sicily was taxed in this way. (Compare Ann., xiii., 54 ; Cces., B. 
G., vi., 23.) The situation of these lands is variously laid down. 
Some authors place them on the banks of the Necker ; others be- 
tween the Lahn and the Main; and on the banks of the Danube, 
opposite the province of Raetia ; or within the Roman vallum, reach- 
ing from Magontiacum to the Danube, near the source of which lay 
the territories of the Marcomanni, which the Romans took posses- 
sion of after Maroboduus removed to Bohemia. Drusus Germani- 
cus, having built a fort on Mount Taunus, seems to have laid the 
first foundation of the limes inclosing the Decumates agri, which 
was gradually advanced, especially by Trajan and Hadrian, and for- 
tified. Though the occupation of these lands depended on the will 
of the emperors, towns gradually sprung up in them. There are 
still remains of a Roman wall running from Ingolstadt, on the Dan- 
ube, past Dinkelsbuhl and (Ehringen, to the Main. Toward the end 
of the third century these lands were wrested from the Romans by 
the Alemanni, whom Julian and Yalentinian in vain endeavored to 
expel c. 29 

Dulgibini. A German tribe, called Aovhyov/uviot by Ptolemy, 
who places them on the eastern bank of the Weser, in the southern 
part of Calenberg, and the western half of Grubenhagen. But this 
was not the position in which Tacitus knew them. He places them 
in the rear of the Chamavi and Angrivarii, in what was once the 
territory of the Bructeri ; and their territories, according to this, 
would lie between the Ems and the Lippe, where the town of Dul- 
gibinum (Dulmen) was situated. They belonged to the Cherusci, 
and were apparently driven eastward by the same eruption of the 
Cauci as that which expelled the Angrivarii. (Ptol, ii., 11 ; Strab., 
vii., 44) c. 34 



228 GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 

E. 

Elysii. A German tribe, supposed to have dwelt at (Els, in Si- 
lesia c. 43 

Eudoses. A German tribe, placed by some in Holstein, where 
Eutinum, the River Eydora (Eyder), and Euding, took their names 
from them. Others make them to have dwelt on the banks of the 
River Dosse c. 40 

F. 

Fenni. The inhabitants of Finnland. (Compare Warnefr., i., 
5) c. 46 

Fosi. A German tribe, whose name is connected with that of the 
River Fuse, which flows into the Alter near Zelle. They were an- 
nihilated by the Langobardi c. 36 

Frisii. A German tribe, divided into the Frisii major es and mi- 
nores. The Frisii minores inhabited the tract north of the Insula 
Batavorum, comprising Oberyssel, Gelders, Utrecht, and the greater 
part of the province of Holland. The Frisii majores dwelt between 
the Yssel, the Ems, and the country of the Bructeri in West Fries- 
land and Groningen. The Frisiabones, mentioned by Pliny, probably 
formed a part of the same race, and seem to have dwelt in the islands 
of the Zuyder Zee. From their first acquaintance with the Romans, 
they long continued their most zealous friends in this part : they 
rendered Drusus the most active service ■ and not only supported 
Germanicus themselves, by their advice and service, but bought 
over the Cauci also. The cause of this friendship is, probably, to 
be found in the hostility which existed between them and the Che- 
rusci, against whom all these enterprises of the Romans were di- 
rected. It was interrupted, however, in consequence of the Ro- 
mans building forts in their territories, and attempting to levy tribute. 
They rose upon the Romans, massacred the soldiers who were 
among them, and destroyed most of their strong-holds. Corbulo, 
the Roman general, proceeded against them ; but the jealousy of 
Claudius Caesar stopped his conquests, and he was obliged to with- 
draw to the left bank of the Rhine. From this time forward the 
Romans no more entered their country. In the fourth and fifth cen- 
turies we hear of them as members of the Saxon league ; and by 
this time they had greatly extended their possessions. On the east, 
they reached to the Weser, and along the coast they held some posts 
as far as the Elbe ; on the west, their name appears more than once 
in the Batavian Island, on the Meuse and Scheldt, and on the whole 
coast of Flanders. They accompanied the Saxons in their invasion 



GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 229 

and conquest of Britain. They were first humbled by Pipin the 
elder, who defeated their king, Radbod, and subdued the western 
part of their country as far as the eastern mouth of the Rhine. His 
successor, Poppo, attempted to recover it, but was repulsed by 
Charles Martel. Charlemagne added the eastern part of their king- 
dom to his other Saxon conquests. They gained possession of the 
Batavian island in the time of the Emperor Julian. They were an- 
ciently governed by two princes. Their descendants, who still re- 
tain their name, inhabit the small islands on the western coast of 
Schleswig. (Ptol., ii., 11. Ann., ii., 24; iv., 72, 73; xi., 18-20; 
xiii., 54. Plin., iv., 15, 29, 31) c. 34, 35 

G. 

Gambrivii. One of the early appellations of the Germanic race, 
according to some authorities referred to by Tacitus {Germ., c. 2). 
Various etymologies have been assigned for the name, but all 
equally unsatisfactory. Wachter deduces it from gam (" a man") 
and brig (" a bridge") ; Longolius, from gam, and brack (" a marshy 
spot") . . c. 2 

Germani. The Germans, the inhabitants of Germania. This 
word Germania was employed by the Romans to designate a coun- 
try of much greater extent than modern Germany. They included 
under this name all the nations of Europe east of the Rhine and 
north of the Danube, bounded on the north by the German Ocean 
and the Baltic, including Denmark and the neighboring islands, and 
on the east by the Sarmatians and Dacians. It is difficult, however, 
to ascertain how far Germany stretched to the east. According to 
Strabo, Germanic tribes dwelt nearly as far as the mouths of the 
Borysthenes (Dnieper). Sometimes Germany proper was called 
Germania Transrhenana, to distinguish it from the tract lying be- 
tween the Rhine and Scheldt, which was called Germania Cisrhe- 
nana, after it had been inhabited by some German tribes, which had 
crossed the Rhine, or had been brought over by Agrippa and Tibe- 
rius. The latter was also divided into Germania Superior, or Prima, 
extending along the Rhine from Bingium, beyond Argentoratum ; 
and Germania Inferior, or Secunda, reaching from Bingium to the 
sea. (Plin., iv., 17 ; Bio Cass., liii., 12.) 

1 . Origin of the Germanic Nations. 

The origin of the Germanic nations is involved in uncertainty. 
The inhabitants of the beautiful regions of Italy, who had never 
known a rougher country, could hardly believe that any nation had 



230 GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 

deserted its native soil to dwell in the forests of Germany, where 
severe cold prevailed for the greater part of the year, and w r here, 
even in summer, impenetrable w T oods prevented the genial rays of 
the sun from reaching the ground. They thought that the Germans 
must have lived there from the beginning, and therefore called them 
indigence, or natives of the soil. (Germ., 2.) Modern inquiries, how- 
ever, have traced the descent of the Germanic race from the inhab- 
itants of Asia ; since it is now indisputably established that the Teu- 
tonic dialects belong to one great family with the Latin, the Greek, 
the Sanscrit, and the other languages of the Indo-European chain. 
Von Hammer calls the Germans a Bactriano-Median nation. He 
makes the name Germani, or Sermani, in its primitive import, to have 
meant those who followed the worship of Buddha ; and hence the 
Germans, according to him, are that ancient and primitive race who 
came down from the mountains of Upper Asia, the cradle of the hu- 
man species, and spreading themselves over the low country more 
to the south, gave origin to the Persian and other early nations. 
Hence the name Dschermania applied in early times to all that tract 
of country which lay to the north of the Oxus. The land of Erman, 
therefore, which was situate beyond this river, and which corre- 
sponds to the modern Chorasin, is made by Von Hammer the native 
home of the Germanic race, and the Germans themselves are, as 
he informs us, called Dschermani, their primitive name, by the Ori- 
ental writers down to the fourteenth century. (Wien. Jakrb., vol. 
ii., p. 319. Compare vol. ix., p. 39.) Another remarkable circum- 
stance is, that, besides the name referred to, that of the modern 
Prussians may be found under its primitive form in the Persian 
tongue. We have there the term Pruschan, or Peruschan, in the 
sense of "a people." In Meninski (i., p. 533), we have Berussan 
and Beruschan, in the sense of " communitas ejusdem religionis ;" 
while in Ferghengi Schuuri, Peruschan, or Poruschan, more than once 
occurs (vol. i., B., 182, &c). Even the name Sachsen, or Sassen 
(Saxons), is to be found in the Persian tongue under the form Sassa?i, 
as indicating not only the last dynasty of the Persian Empire (the 
Sassanides), but also those acquainted with the doctrines of the Des- 
satin, the old Persian dialect of which is far more nearly related to 
the Gothic than the modern Persian to the German. In the Orient- 
al histories, moreover, mention is made of the dynasty of the sons 
of Boia, in whom we may easily recognize the progenitors of the 
Boh ; while traces of the name of the Catti may be found in that of 
Kat, in Chorasin. (Ferg. Schuuri, B., 231.) Even as early as the 
time of Herodotus, the name of the Tepfiaviot appears among the an- 



GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 231 

cient Persian tribes (Herod., i., 125), while the analogies between the 
Persian and German are so striking as to have excited the attention 
of every intelligent scholar. And, besides all this, an ancient Geor- 
gian MS. of laws, not long since brought to light, proves con- 
clusively that the Georgian nation had among them ordeals precisely 
similar to those of the early Germans, and also the same judicial 
forms of proceeding, and the same system of satisfactions to be 
paid in cases of homicide, according to the rank of the party slain. 
(Annal. de Legislat. et de Jurispr., N. 40, Paris, 1829. Compare, on 
the whole subject, Kruse's Archiv der Germanischen Vdlkerst amine, 
ii., p. 124, seqq.) If these premises be correct, the commonly re- 
ceived etymology of the name Germani, which makes it equivalent 
to " war-men," or " warriors," falls, of course, to the ground. (Con- 
sult notes on chapter ii.) It may not be amiss, however, after 
having stated what appears to be the most probable view of the 
subject, to give a few other etymologies for the name Germani, each 
of which has its advocates. Thus, Althamer makes Germanus 
equivalent to " homo prorsus virilis," and the same, in fact, as Ala- 
man, i. e., Ganz-Mann. Wackernagel, on the other hand, explains 
Germanus by G'ermanus, i. e., Volksgenosse. Luden thinks that the 
term Germania is nothing more than the German Wehrmannei, and 
that there were several such Germania, or " confederacies" (Eidsge- 
nossenschaften), such as those of the Cherusci, the Catti, the Cauci, 
&c. ; and hence the union of all of these would form what he terms 
" Gesammtgermanien." (Gesch. der Deutschen, i., p. 163.) And, 
finally, the name Germani is supposed by some to be derived from 
ger, which, according to them, appears in the French guerre, " war," 
and man. (Compare the etymological remarks under the article 
Teutones.) 

2. Geographical Acquaintance with Ancient Germany. 

Our information concerning the geography of ancient Germany is 
very scanty and uncertain. The Greek and Roman writers, from 
whom our knowledge of it is derived, knew very little about it them- 
selves. A knowledge of the German Ocean, and the northern parts 
of Europe, had been acquired, first by the Phoenicians and Cartha- 
ginians, who procured tin from the Cassiterides or from Britain, and 
amber from the shores of the Baltic (see c. 45) ; and, in the year 
B C. 400, by Himilco the Carthaginian, whose voyage has been de- 
scribed by the poet Avienus (Plin., ii., 67) ; in B.C. 330, by Hecataeus 
and Philemon (Plin., iv., 13, or 27) ; and about the same time, by 
Ephorus and Clitarchus (Strab., vii., 2, 1, p. 293) ; by Timseus, Xen- 



232 GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 

ophon of Lampsacus, Sotacus, Nicias, Xenocrates, Mithradates, and 
especially Pytheas of Massilia, who, in the year B.C. 320, sailed to 
Thule, and thence into the Baltic. (Strab., i., 4 ; ii., 3, 4 ; hi., 2 ; 
iv., 4, 5. Plin., iv., 16, or 27, 30 ; xxxvii., 2, or 11.) The knowl- 
edge which the Romans possessed of Germany and the western 
parts of Europe was derived principally from the expeditions of 
Caesar, Drusus Germanicus, Germanicus, and Ahenobarbus. Dru- 
sus Germanicus, the brother of Tiberius, made four expeditions into 
Germany, and dug the canal between the Rhine and the Chisala 
(Yssel). He was the first' who navigated the German Ocean^but 
did not advance further than the mouth of the Amisia (Ems), in the 
territory of the Cauci. Germanicus, the son of Drusus (A.D. 14- 
16), made four expeditions into Germany, and advanced still further ; 
he was shipwrecked on the territory of the Frisii (Ann., i., 49-52, 
55-59, 60-71 ; ii., 5-26, 41-46). L. Domitius Ahenobarbus crossed 
the Elbe, and penetrated further into Germany than any of his pred- 
ecessors. (Ann., i., 63 ; iv., 44. Suet., Ner., iv.) Tiberius ad- 
vanced to the Arctic Sea (Ann., ii., 26, 47 ; xii., 39. Bio., Iv., 6, 8, 
28 ; lvi., 25. Suet., Tib., 9, 17, 18, 20. Veil, ii., 97, 104-110, 120.) 
This expedition of Tiberius, however, Strabo (vii., 1, p. 291) and 
Tacitus himself (c. 34) attribute to Drusus Germanicus. On the 
south side of Germany the Romans made no conquests beyond the 
Danube ; but they obtained some geographical knowledge through 
the journeys of the traders who procured amber from the shores of 
the Baltic, and from their wars with the Daci, Marcomanni, and 
other tribes on this frontier. Strabo wrote in the age of Tiberius, 
when the Romans possessed a more accurate knowledge of Germany 
than at any other time, through the expeditions of which we have 
just spoken. After this period the Romans were almost entirely 
shut out of Germany. Strabo, however, is exceedingly careless. 
He did not read even Caesar's Gallic war with sufficient attention to 
understand it, and confuses almost every thing which he extracts 
from the accounts brought home by Pytheas. Our difficulties are, 
moreover, increased by the inaccuracy of the text. Pomponius 
Mela is worth nothing. Pliny, likewise, was very careless, as we 
see, even in what he says of Italy ; we can not, therefore, look for 
much accuracy in his account of Germany. His work is principal- 
ly valuable for the proper names. The imperfect character of the 
geographical knowledge which Tacitus possessed of Germany is 
manifest from his work upon the subject. Ptolemy has ventured 
to give a map of Germany, and to lay down the latitudes and longi- 
tudes of a number of towns and mouths of rivers. The greater part 



GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 233 

of these he never visited himself; and who, in that age, could have 
furnished him with the requisite information'? Indeed, his map 
bears but a faint resemblance to the actual shape and features of 
Germany ; and, in the majority of instances, it can with difficulty be 
determined whether the towns he mentioned existed at all. There 
is this additional disadvantage in his book, that he defines positions 
by numbers, which, of all things, are the most liable to alteration 
through the mistakes of the transcribers. One of the most valua- 
ble geographical monuments of antiquity, Antoninus's Itinerary, 
compiled under the direction of J. Caesar and Antony or Augustus, 
is available only for a few roads on the frontier. The Peutingerian 
Table is frequently of use in making maps ; since, though the 
countries are excessively distorted, the distances between the towns 
laid down on it are given : but it is of scarcely any service in the 
case of Germany. Inscriptions and coins, again, which afford some 
of the best means of defining the situations of places, are of rare 
occurrence in Germany. But, in addition to all these difficulties and 
disadvantages, the wandering and unsettled character of the Ger- 
mans themselves renders it totally impossible to lay down a map 
which should represent the relative positions of the tribes at any 
one period, or for any length of time, though we can generally 
determine the position which individual tribes occupied at some 
time or other. This is seen from the wide discrepancies between 
Tacitus and his contemporaries, and Ptolemy, and from such 
glimpses as history affords us of the migrations of several of the 
tribes c. 2, 16, 27, 28, 30, 31, &c. 

Gothini. A German tribe, who are supposed by some to have 
lived in Cracow, or on the banks of the Marus {March), as it is said 
that the Quadi imposed a tribute upon them ; and Ptolemy (ii., 11) 
mentions towns here having a Celtic name and origin, adding vfi 
ovc (rovg Kovddovc) ra Gidrjpupvxela (either where are the modern 
Feldsburg, Eisgrub, and Niclasburg, not far from Cracow, on the 
western bank of the Vistula, or at Iglawa, Oslawa, Schwarza, Zwil- 
tawa, between Bohemia and Moravia), koX tj Aovva v?itj (Manhart). 
Others place the Gothini on the south of the Danube, where there 
are several iron mines in Styria c. 43 

Gotones. The name Gotones is synonymous with that of Tvdoveg 
(Ptol.), or Goths. They were frequently erroneously confounded 
with the Getae and Scythians. Pytheas is the first who mentions 
them, when they lived on the right bank of the Vistula, and on the 
coast of the Baltic, on the borders of Silesia and Poland, and after- 
ward a part of them in Scandinavia, where their name appears in 



234 GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 

Gothland, Gothenburg, Codanus Sinus, and Gedanum. Pliny and 
Tacitus do not make them reach to the sea. A portion of them 
were members of the Marcomannic league {Ann., ii., 62). They first 
appear under the name of Goths in the time of Caracalla. Some- 
where about the middle of the second century, they seem to have 
wandered from the Vistula to the neighborhood of the Dnieper and 
Dniester, and incessantly harassed the province of Dacia. Under 
Gallienus they devastated Thrace and Macedonia ; and a portion 
of them penetrated into Asia Minor, and burned the temple of Diana 
at Ephesus. About this period they spread eastward along the 
northern coast of the Euxine. In the year 269, they were defeated 
by Claudius in Moesia. Shortly afterward Aurelian abandoned Da- 
cia to them ; and they were now divided into Ostro- Goths, or East- 
Goths, inhabiting the shores of the Euxine, and Visi- Goths, or West- 
Goths, who occupied Dacia. The Borysthenes formed the boundary 
of the two divisions. About the year 375, the Huns, under Attila, 
drove the Ostrogoths upon their western neighbors, who retired 
before them, and were allowed by the Emperor Valens to settle in 
Moesia. Here disputes arose between them and the Romans, and 
Valens was killed in attempting to oppose them. In the reign of 
Honorius, Alaric, at the head of the Visigoths, invaded Italy, but 
was defeated by Stilicho. He soon returned, however, and made 
himself master of Rome. His successor, Ataulph, made peace with 
the Romans, and withdrew to the south of Gaul, from which the 
Visigoths afterward crossed to Spain, where they maintained their 
ground till they were conquered by the Moors. After the death of 
Attila, the Ostrogoths emancipated themselves from the dominion 
of the Huns ; and, under Theodoric, defeated Odoacer and subdued 
Italy (A.D. 489). But their dominion here was overthrown by Nar- 
ses, the general of Justinian, in 554, and the remnant of their race 
became amalgamated with the other inhabitants of Italy. 

H. 

Hellusii. A German tribe dwelling in the extreme north, of 
whom nothing certain is known. (Consult notes on Germania, 
c. 46) . . . . c. 46 

Helvecones. A German tribe, who dwelt between Ukermark 
and Priegnitz. In Ptolemy they are called Allovaicoveg (ed. Erasm.), 
or 7 ~E?iovG)vec (ed. Mirand.) . . . . . . . c. 43 

Hercynia Silva. This was the general name of the large mount- 
ain chain which separates the interior of Germany from the tracts 
adjacent to the Danube ; commencing with the Black Forest, run- 



GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 235 

ning northward till it crosses the Main, then eastward, comprising 
what are now called the Spessart Wald and Franken Wald, through 
Bohemia and the north of Hungary. (Cces., B. G.,vi., 25 ; Strabo, 
vii., p. 207, 290, 292 ; Plin., xvi., 2 ; Ptol, ii., 11.) These writers, 
however, do not all quite agree in their description. Ptolemy as- 
signs much narrower limits to the name, and applies it to the ridge 
between the Gabretan Forest and the Sarmatian Mountains, which 
unite the Carpathian and Sudetan Mountains. Caesar's account of 
it was derived from report. At a later period, the Romans, in their 
wars with Maroboduus, whose possessions lay among the Bohmer 
Wald Mountains, became personally acquainted with it. Different 
names were afterward given to the several subdivisions of this 
chain. Silva Marciana. was the Schwarz Wald, or Black Forest : 
this name became known to the Romans in their war with the Al- 
lemanni ; it is found in the Peutingerian Table. The Helvetii had 
inhabited it in former times, but were expelled by the wandering 
Suevi ; Ptolemy called it ttjv 'ETiovvttlov epnfiov. The name Ab- 
noba, which belongs to the ridge in which the Danube rises, was 
given by Ptolemy to a chain of mountains which he makes to run 
parallel to the Rhine, from the Main to the source of the Amisia 
(Ems), which, according to him, rises in it. From Fichtelberg east- 
ward, through Bohemia to Moravia, where it meets with the Her- 
cynian chain, runs a ridge called by Ptolemy Mount Sudeta. South 
of this, following what is now called the Bohmer Wald, but extend- 
ing to a greater breadth toward the north, lay the Gabretan Forest 
(j] Td6p?}Ta vTirj). On each side of the River March lay the Forest 
of Luna. The most eastern range, extending from the Danube, 
where it turns southward, to the Carpathian Mountains, is called by 
Ptolemy the Sarmatic Mountains. These are the mountains and 
forests which are frequently, by the Roman writers, comprehended 
under the name of the Hercynian Forest . . . . c. 28 

Hercynius Saltus. The same as Hercynia Silva, which see. 

Herminones. Consult notes on chap. ii. 

Hermunduri. (Penult doubtful, as both 'EpfiovSopot and 'Ep/iov- 
dovpoc occur. The short quantity, however, is to be preferred.) A 
German tribe, who occupied what is now Saxony and Anhalt, be- 
tween the Sala (Francorum) and the Albis. (Flumen Albis, qui 
Semnonum Hermundurorumque fines prceterfluit. Veil., ii., 106.) 
Toward the west they bordered on the Cherusci and the Thiiringer 
Wald, and the Sala (Ann., xiii., 57) divided them from the Catti. 
From Ann,, xii., 30, we gather, that on the east they dwelt near 
the Quadi, whose territories lay in Moravia and Upper Hungary, 



286 GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 

with whom, in conjunction with the Lygii, whose possessions were 
situated in the western part of the Carpathian Mountains, they 
waged war. Accordingly, the Hermunduri would live about the 
sources of the Elbe, in the north of Bohemia. Their name is not 
mentioned by Ptolemy ; and as we have not the least hint in his- 
tory that they were annihilated in war, it is probable that the Tau- 
riochcemcB, whom he places in their country, were the same people 
under another name. In the fifth century they appear in the same 
district, under the name of Thuringi. In the name Hermunduri, 
Hermun is probably not an essential part, but merely marks that 
they belong to the Herminones. Duri- seems to be their real name ; 
and this root appears, with a German ending, in Thur-ingi. A di- 
vision of the Hermunduri dwelt on the banks of the Danube, in the 
eastern part of Franconia. From a fragment of Dio Cassius, we 
learn that Domitius Ahenobarbus (A.D. 2) assigned them this abode 
when wandering in search of new settlements. The Turoni, on 
the northern side of the Main, mentioned by Ptolemy, are probably 
a branch of the same people. The towns mentioned by Ptolemy 
as belonging to them are, AoKopirov (Lohr), ^Leyodovvov (Wurce- 
burg), Anovova (Schweinfurth, or Detwang), Bepyiov (Bamberg, or 
Berching), MevoayaSa (Baruth), Kavrloidig (Windsheme), BiSa/cov 
(Suabach) . . c. 41, 42 

I. 

Ing^evones. Consult notes on chap. ii. . . . . c. 2 
Ist^evones. Consult notes on chap. ii. . . . . c. 2 

L. 

Langobardi. A German tribe, who frequently changed their set- 
tlements. At first they dwelt in the neighborhood of the Lower 
Elbe, in the tract called Bardengau, between Magdeburg, Lilneburg, 
and Hamburg, where the town of Bardwick stands, and in which 
they were subdued by Tiberius (Ptol., ii., 11 ; Veil., ii., 106), who 
moved them beyond the Elbe. They then advanced more into the 
interior of the country, to the neighborhood of the Semnones ; and, 
together with these, revolted from Maroboduus, under whose domin- 
ion they then were, to Arminius (Ann., ii., 45, 46 ; xi., 17), and as- 
sisted Italicus, the banished king of the Cherusci (Ann., xi., 16, 17). 
But in the Marcomannic war, having crossed the Danube, they 
were defeated by Vindex and Candidus. Afterward, on the decline 
of the power of the Cherusci, they extended themselves to the 
Rhine ; and here they are placed by Ptolemy, between the Bructeri 



GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 237 

and Tencteri. They did not, however, remain here long , the Sax- 
on league drove them back to the Elbe. In the fifth century they 
took possession of part of Hungary, on the northern bank of the 
Danube, and in the sixth century, under the guidance of Audoinus, 
they crossed this river and established themselves in Pannonia. 
Then, at the invitation of Narses, and led by Alboinus across the 
Alps (A.D. 568), they settled in Lombardy, which Charlemagne 
subdued (A.D. 774), having taken Desiderius, the last king. Tac- 
itus has here omitted the Burgundiones, as in his time they were 
unknown to the Romans. They afterward, with the Langobardi, 
settled upon the Decumales agri. Thence they made an irrup- 
tion into Gaul, and seized upon the lands which still bear their 
name . . . ; c. 40 

Lemovii. A German tribe, who seem to have dwelt near the 
town and River Leba. They are mentioned by no other writer but 
Tacitus c. 43 

Lygii. A German tribe, whose territory extended from the 
sources of the River Vistula to about the middle of its course. To 
the south they bordered on the Carpathian Mountains, to the west 
on the Riesengebirge, and to the north on the Burgundii ; including 
the southern part of Silesia, the western part of Galicia, and some 
parts of Poland west of the Vistula. Some of them joined the Mar- 
comanni and Hermunduri against the Quadi ; others, during the 
reign of Probus, under the guidance of their king, Semno, with the 
Burgundii and Vandals, advanced as far as the Rhine against the 
Romans. After this period their name disappears (Ann., xii., 29, 
30 ; Bio, lxvii., 5). Some identify them with the Ligues, or Ligu- 
rians, in Gaul ; and suppose that, having been conquered by the 
Gauls, they migrated first into Italy, and then into Germany . c. 43 

M. 

Manimi. A German tribe, supposed to have lived at the mouth 
of the Neisse. It is impossible, however, to determine their pre- 
cise position c. 43 

Marcomanni. A German tribe, of whom we first hear in the 
army of Ariovistus, when he was at war with Caesar and the Hel- 
vetians (Cas., B. G.,i., 51), on the Rhine ; then between the Main 
and the Neckar. After Caesar's death they dwelt between the Dan- 
ube and the Drave, in Austria and Hungary, till the Romans con- 
quered Pannonia and the Noric Alps, when they withdrew to the 
opposite side of the river, into the country formerly occupied by the 
Boii, whom they expelled. This they did under the guidance of 



238 GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 

Maroboduus, who, in his youth, had come to Rome and been edu- 
cated at the court of Augustus. He raised his people to a high 
pitch of prosperity, and formed a league including a great number 
of the Suevic tribes, of which the Langobardi and Semnones were 
the most northerly. His power had become formidable to Rome, 
and Tiberius prepared to invade his dominions. But a sudden in- 
surrection of the Pannonian and Dalmatian tribes compelled Tibe- 
rius to conclude a treaty with him (Veil., ii., 108-110 ; Ann., ii., 16). 
The Langobardi and Semnones having withdrawn from Marobo- 
duus, and attached themselves to Arminius, the chief of the Che- 
rusci, a war ensued between them. Inguiomerus, the uncle of Ar- 
minius, came over to Maroboduus, who was defeated, and compell- 
ed to retire among the Marcomanni, and apply to Rome for assist- 
ance ( Ann., ii., 44-46). It appears that a peace was then concluded 
between them. Maroboduus was soon after expelled by Catualda, 
and forced to take refuge in Italy : he lived there, at Ravenna, for 
eighteen years. Catualda was driven out by the Hermunduri, and 
also fled to Tiberius for protection. The followers of these two 
princes were settled beyond the Danube, between the Morava and 
Gran, and Vannius, from the tribe of the Quadi, was appointed as 
their king (Ann., ii., 62, 63 ; xii., 29, 30 ; Hist., iii., 5). Peace was 
maintained between the Romans and the tribes along the Danube 
till the reign of Domitian, when hostilities broke out, and continued 
almost uninterruptedly till the destruction of the Roman Empire 
(Dio, lxvii., 7 ; Plin., Pan., viii., 12). For an account of the great 
Marcomannic war, in the reign of M. Aurelius, see Dio, lxviii., 9 ; 
lxxi., 3, 8-15, 20-33 ; lxxii., 2. After the death of Attila, in whose 
army they served, they are not any more heard of. Ptolemy men- 
tions as their cities, MapoSovdov (Budweis), Ovo6lov (either Marbach 
or Ispern), ' 'ASihovvov (Zlabings), 'Pedivroviov (Prague), 'No/lllot^plov 
(either Niemes or Nimptsch), KoTidyKopov (either Zittavia or Collo- 

chau) . . c. 42, 43 

Marsi. A German tribe, supposed to have lived at first in the 
neighborhood of the Albis (Elbe) and Visurgis ( Weser) ; then be- 
tween the Rhine and the Chisala (Yssel), from Paderborn to the 
Visurgis ; and at length, when driven out by Drusus, to have set- 
tled in the lands of the Bructeri and Sigambri, between the Amisia 
(Ems) and Luppia (Lippe) : but from Ann., i., 45-50, 56 ; ii., 6, 7, 
25, 26, it has been conjectured that their settlements are to be 
looked for in the neighborhood of the River Logana (Lahn). The 
Marsigni (c. 43) are, perhaps, the same race, or their descend- 
ants . . . . . c. 2 



GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 239 

Marsigni. A German tribe, who seem to have lived about War- 
saw. They are, perhaps, the same race with the Marsi (c. 2), or 
else their descendants c. 43 

Mattiaci. A German tribe, probably a branch of the Catti, who, 
like the Batavi, dwelt on the right bank of the Rhine, in Wetterau 
and Hesse Darmstadt, the tract possessed by the Ubii before they 
crossed the Rhine, between the Moenus {Main) and Logana (Lahn). 
They are first mentioned by Tacitus (Ann., xi., 20) ; for Strabo and 
Dio Cassius speak of the Catti as inhabiting this region. In the 
war of the Batavi, together with the Usipii and Catti, they besieged 
Magontiacum (Mayence). After their territories were occupied by 
the Alemanni, their name was almost extinguished. Their capital 
was Mattium, the site of which is not well determined, and is vari- 
ously placed at Maden, Alticetter, and Matten, or Metz. The first 
is the most likely. Aquae Mattiacae ( Wisbaden) was another of their 
towns c. 29 

N. 

NaharyIli. A German tribe, dwelling between the Warta and 
the Vistula, near Petricau . c. 43 

Narisci. A German tribe, called Yaristi (OvaptaTot) by Ptolemy, 
and Nariscae (Napta/cal) by Dio Cassius. They dwelt at the foot of 
the Fichtelgebirge . . . . . . . . . c. 42 

Xemetes. (The quantity of the penult is doubtful. The long 
quantity, however, is preferable, in accordance with the Greek Ne- 
finrec.) A tribe of German origin in Northern Gaul, in the division 
called Germania Superior, or Prima, lying along the banks of the 
Rhine, and between the Vangiones and Triboci. Their chief city 
was Noviomagus, afterward called Augusta Nemetum, and now 
Speier . . . . . . . . . . . c. 28 

NervIi. A warlike people of Belgic Gaul, whose country lay be- 
tween the Mosa (Meuse), Scaldis (Scheld), and Sabis (Sambre). 
Their original capital was Bagacum, now Bavay ; but afterward 
Camaracum (Cambray) and Turn acum (Tournay) became their chief 
cities toward the end of the fourth century . . . . c. 28 

Noricum. A province of the Roman Empire, bounded on the 
north by the Danube, on the west by Vindelicia and Raetia, on the 
east by Pannonia, and on the south by Illyricum and Gallia Cisal- 
pina. It was separated from Vindelicia by the River CEnus (Inn), 
and from Gallia Cisalpina by the Alpes Carnicae or Juliae, but it is 
difficult to determine the boundaries between Noricum and Panno- 
nia. as they differed at various times. Under the later times of the 



240 GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 

Roman Empire, Mount Cetius and part of the River Murius (Mur) 
appear to have formed the boundaries. Noricum would thus cor- 
respond to the modern Styria, Carinthia, and Salzburg, and to part 
of Austria and Bavaria. The iron of Noricum was much in request 
among the Romans (Plin., xxxiv., 41) ; and, according to Polybius 
(quoted by Strabo, iv., p. 208), gold was formerly found in this prov- 
ince in great abundance c. 5 

Nuithones. A German tribe, who appear to have dwelt some- 
where in Holstein c. 40 

O. 

Osi. A German tribe, supposed to have dwelt in Austria, below 
the mouth of the Anisia, or Enns . . . . . c. 28, 43 

Oxiones. A German tribe, in the extreme north, named by Tac- 
itus in connection with the Hellusii, and of whom nothing certain 
is known c. 49 

P. 

Pannonia. A province of the Roman Empire, bounded on the 
north and east by the Danube, on the south by Illyricum and Moesia, 
and on the west by Noricum. It corresponded to Sclavonia, parts 
of Hungary, Lower Austria, Styria, Croatia, and to those parts of 
Turkish Croatia, Bosnia, and Servia, which immediately touch upon 
the Save. Pannonia was regarded as one of the most important 
provinces of the empire, on account of its bordering on the power- 
ful nations of the Quadi and Iazyges . . . . . c. 1 

Peucini. The Peucini, or Bastarnae, occupied the country from 
the sources of the Vistula to the Carpathian Mountains, which, from 
them, were called the Bastarnic Alps, and dwelt on the left bank of 
the Danube up to its mouth, in Transylvania, Galicia, Hungary, 
Moldavia, Wallachia, and Bessarabia. They are classed among the 
Sarmatians by Ptolemy and Dio, among the Germans by Pliny and 
Strabo, who says that a part of them were called Peucini, on ac- 
count of their living in the island of Peuce, off the mouth of the 
Danube (vii., 2, 17). Others derive the name from Mount Peuce, 
situated above Dacia, near which, according to Ptolemy, they dwelt. 
Livy (xl., 47 ; xliv., 26), Diodorus, and Polybius (xxvi., 9), who had 
not learned the distinction between the Celts and Germans, class 
them among the former. They first appear in history B C. 179, 
serving under Perseus ; then as allies of Mithradates ; afterward as 
members of the Marcomannic league, and in connection with the 
Goths, with whom they seem to have coalesced, unless, as some 



GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 241 

have supposed, they were the originators of the Frank league. Pro- 
bus is reported to have settled one hundred thousand of them in 
Thrace. Plutarch (Mm. PaulL, 12) says: "Baarapvai, avdpeg ov 
yscopyecv eldoreg, ov irTielv, ova and noifivtcov £rjv ve/Ltovreg, aXK Iv ep- 
yov koI fj,lav texvtjv /lE/.ertjvreg del fidxeadat Kal Kparelv tCjv uvtctclt- 
TOfjiivcjv. "Avdpeg vip7]?iol fikv rd cupara, -&av/j.aarol 6e rug fie?ierag f 
fieyaXavxoi ds Kal Xa/Ltnpol rale, Kara rdv noTiEfxiuv anzikalq, d-dpaog 
TrapEGTrjaav rocg M-anedoGi Kal So^av, d>q tuv 'Pcofcacov ovx vnofj-evovv- 

TCJV, dlX kK7T?iay7jO0fZEVG)V T7]V OtpCV aVTTjV Kal T7]V KLV7JGLV, £K<pVA0V 

ovoav Kal dvgnpogonrov" . . . . . . . C. 46 

Q. 

Quadi. The Romans first became acquainted with this powerful 
German tribe after the conquest of Pannonia. They always appear 
in the closest connection with the Marcomanni. Their most an- 
cient settlements on the Danube reached eastward to the Tibiscus, 
or Teis, where they bordered on the Getae ; but partly in conse- 
quence of the irruption of the Iazyges, partly through the influence 
of Maroboduus, they withdrew westward. The name Quadi was 
given to the mixed tribe composed of the followers of Maroboduus 
and Catualda, settled by the Romans between the Marus and the 
Cusus. Toward the north they reached to the Carpathian Mount- 
ains, beyond which dwelt the Lygii. Their western limits can not 
be determined with accuracy. The original tribe of the Quadi 
seems to have extended westward beyond the Morava, and to have 
united with their brethren on the east. They carried on wars with 
M. Aurelius, Commodus, Caracalla, Gallienus, Aurelian, Constan- 
tius, Julian, and Valentinian I., till the fifth century, when they ap- 
pear to have coalesced with other nations. (Dio Cass., lxxi., 8, 
seqq. ; lxxii., 2; lxxvii., 20.) Their cities mentioned by Ptolemy 
are, ^povpytGarlc, KopcSopylg, Medoe?AvLov, 'PoBodovvov, $i?i7]KLa, 
MeXiodovvov, the sites of which can not be determined with any 
accuracy, 'Av6ovetlov (Dioszeg), K£?. l uavTia (Szomolyan), "AvaSov 
(Abany), 2iyyovij (Treutsin), "ESovpov (Berun), 'ApaUova (Felsi), 
Jlaplevva (Varin), and ^erovia (Sydzina) . . . c. 42, 43 

R. 

Rjetia appears properly to have comprehended the whole coun- 
try between the north of Italy and the Danube, and, consequently, 
to have included Vindelicia. Dio Cassius (liv., 22), in his account 
of the conquest of the Raeti and Vindelici by Drusus and Tiberius, 
only mentions the Rseti. Strabo often speaks of them (iv., p. 193, 

L 



242 GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 

206 ; vii., p. 449) as if they were only one people ; and Tacitus, in 
several passages, appears to include Vindelicia in the province of 
Rsetia. In the time of Augustus, however, these two countries 
formed two separate provinces, of which Raetia was bounded on the 
west by the Helvetii, on the east by Noricum, on the south by Gal- 
lia Cisalpina, and on the north by Vindelicia, from which it was 
separated by the Lacus Brigantinus, or Lake of Constance, and the 
River (Enus, or Inn. It included the greater part of the Tyrol and 
the eastern cantons of Switzerland. The only town of importance 
in Raetia was Tridentum (Trent), on the Athesis, the capital of the 
Tridentini ■ . c. 3, 41 

R^ETI. Vid. RAETIA. 

Reudigni. A German tribe, whose position is quite uncertain. 
They probably lived near Lauenberg . . . . . c. 40 

Rhenus. The Rhine, rising in the Lepontine Alps, a little to the 
east of Mount St. Gothard, in the country of the Grisons. Its whole 
course is nine hundred miles, of which six hundred and thirty are 
navigable from Basilia {Basle) to the sea. The Rhine formed the 
boundary between Germany proper and Gallia . . c. 1, &c. 

Rugii. A German tribe, who lived between the Viadrus (Oder) 
and Vistula. The island of Rugen probably took its name from 
them. After the death of Attila, they took possession of part of 
Austria, Moravia, and Upper Hungary, but in 480 were either de- 
stroyed or dispersed by Odoacer c. 43 

S. 

Sarmat^e. The European Sarmatians, the Slavonians of a more 
recent age, were but little known to the Romans. They are sup- 
posed to have occupied Poland, Lithuania, the eastern part of Prus- 
sia, Curonia, Livonia, Russia, the lesser Tartary, and the Taurie 
Chersonese . c. 1, 17, 43, 46 

Semnones. (The penult is doubtful. Ptolemy has le/xvovec, and 
Strabo Xefivuveg. The short quantity appears more in accordance 
with analogy.) A branch of the Suevic nation, who lived between 
the Albis (Elbe) and Viadrus (Oder), inhabiting the tract which com- 
prises what is now Mecklenburg and Brandenburg, with part of Sax- 
ony, Bohemia, Lusatia, Silesia, and Poland. They belonged to the 
kingdom of Maroboduus. The Romans first came in contact with 
them in the expeditions of Tiberius (Veil, ii., 106, 107) ; and the 
wars against Arminius, to whom, together with the Langobardi, 
they went over from Maroboduus (Ann., ii., 45. 46 ; Veil., ii., 106, 
107) ; then in the time of Domitian, when a king of theirs, Ma- 



GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 243 

syus, whom they had driven out, came to Rome. (Dio Cass., lxvii., 

5) c. 39 

Sitones. Consult notes on Germ., c. 45 . . . . c. 45 
Suardoxes. A German tribe, who seem to have lived near Lu- 

bcck, by the River Schwartau c. 40 

Suevi. A powerful German tribe, who, according to Tacitus, 
possessed all the land from the banks of the Danube northward to 
the Baltic Sea, between the Elbe and the Vistula. Through the 
midst of their territories stretched a chain of mountains, the name 
of which we do not learn from Tacitus (c. 43) ; but which, from his 
description, appears to be identical with the Asciburgian range of 
Ptolemy, and the modern Riesengebirge. Caesar makes their pos- 
sessions extend to the Rhine, along the north bank of the Mcenus, 
or Main. The reason of this was probably owing to the fact, that 
on the north side of the Main an army of Suevi had come to the 
aid of Ariovistus, which afterward retired (C<zs., B. G., i., 37, 54; 
iv., 1-3). The Catti were the tribe to which Caesar gave the name 
of Suevi. Strabo even speaks of Suevi on the Rhine, when all 
the tribes in that quarter had already become known through the 
expeditions of the Romans {Annal., i., 44; ii., 26, 44. Agr., 28. 
Ptol., ii., 11). The different nations into wiiich the Suevi were di- 
vided are enumerated by Tacitus (c. 38-45). After the time of 
Tacitus, the name seems to have been nearly lost. It appears only 
once in the w r ar with the Marcomanni, although that was carried on 
against tribes who once bore the name. After this, it only occurs 
twice. Ptolemy gives it as a surname to the Langobardi ; and in 
the fourth century appeared a people bearing the name, who dwelt 
in the country called from them Suabia. The name probably oc- 
curs, though somewhat disguised, in that of the Viadrus, which 
seems originally to have begun with an s : the mouth still bears the 
name of Swinemund. Instances of the loss of the letter s, and the 
interchange of v and d, are seen in tjSvq, sweet, suavis, suadeo (orig- 
inally to sweeten), sop-or, vttvoc, clavis, claudo, &c. Ptolemy speaks 
of a river Suevus between the Oder and the Elbe ; but there is no 
river there of a magnitude approaching to that which he assigns to 
the Suevus. Perhaps it was a name of the Oder, which he applied 
to another river. Suiones appears to be only a variation of the name 
Suevi. 

Suiones. A German tribe, inhabiting the south of Sweden, which 
w T as supposed by the ancients to be an island . . . c. 44 



244 GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 

T. 

Tencteri. A German tribe. Vid. Usipii. 

Teutones, or Teutoni. The name of the Teutones was made 
known to the ancients by Pytheas of Massilia (Marseilles), who, in 
the age of Alexander the Great, about 320 B.C., discovered a nation 
of that name in the Chersonesus Cimbrica, and on the adjacent 
islands, or in the present countries of Holstein, Schleswig, Denmark, 
and perhaps, also, in the southern extremity of Sweden. It seems 
that they had long been settled there, for they lived in houses, and 
were acquainted with agriculture and commerce. Other traces of 
the name appear later. Among the Celtic tribes which invaded 
Greece and besieged Delphi, under the second Brennus (B.C. 278), 
there was a people called Teutobodiaci, who afterward passed the 
Hellespont, and settled with the Celts in Galatia, in Asia Minor. 
About a hundred and sixty years later, the Romans were attacked 
by the Cimbri and Teutones, who came from the same country, 
where they had been seen by Pytheas. When the Romans first 
heard the name of the Teutones, they thought that they were a single 
tribe. They did not know that it was also the general and ethno- 
graphic name of all those nations to which they afterward gave the 
designation of Germans. 

Origin of the name Teutones. 

The root of the word Teuton is thu or do, which originally repre- 
sented the idea of " activity," of " living, procreating, nourishing," 
and also of " taming, educating, and ruling." From this root are 
formed the following words, some of which are still used in the 
popular dialects ; Teut, " God, creator, ruler, father, nourisher" 
(Thor, Tuisco) ; thut or ' thiud, " earth ;" tott, dote, dote, " godfather ;" 
toda, " nurse ;" thiod, " father of the people," " lord, ruler, king," in 
Gothic thiudans, in old Bavarian theodo ; diet, " people," in old Swe- 
dish thiaut and thyd ; thiudinassus, in Gothic, "kingdom." (Fulda, 
Wurzel-Wdrterbuch). The names of king and of people being both 
derived from one root, which expresses the notion of ruling, is a 
fact which proves that they belong to the language of a nation in 
which there was neither absolute monarchical power, nor absolute 
submission to their chiefs. This corresponds exactly to the politi- 
cal state of the ancient Teutonic nations, among whom the sover- 
eignty was in the people, and the executive power of the chiefs or 
kings, although it was obeyed, was always regarded as derived from 
the people. The idea of ruling, expressed by the root Teut, explains 



GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 245 

why this word occurs so frequently in the names of the ancient Teu- 
tonic kings, dukes, or chiefs, such as Teutoboch, Theudorix, Diorix, 
Theodorix, Theodoric, Theodomir, Theodimir, Teutagon, &c. It 
is likewise contained in the general name of all the Teutonic na- 
tions, and in those of various tribes, as the Teutones, the Teutono- 
arii, Thaifali, and the Dithmarses, or Dietmarses. It is visible in 
" Teutoburger Wald" the name of that range of wooded mountains 
which stretches from Detmold westward beyond Osnabruck, in which 
is situated the Grotenburg, formerly " Teut" or " Teutoberg," with 
the farm of Teutehof, where Varus was overthrown by Arminius ; 
in " Detmold" " Doesburg," " Duisburg," " Deuz," and in a great 
many other localities in Germany. Teuton is identical with Deutsche 
or Teutsche (in low German Dutsch, in Dutch Duitsch, in Danish 
Tysk, in English Dutch), which, from the remotest time, has been 
and is still the general name of that part of the Teutonic nations 
which we now call Germans, who considered the god or hero Tuisco 
as their common ancestor. There are no direct proofs of the word 
Teuton having had this extensive meaning in the earliest German 
history, but this is, perhaps, the result of the political state of the 
Teutonic nations, which were originally divided into numerous 
tribes, each of which became separately known to the Romans. In 
the twelfth, eleventh, and even as early as the tenth century, when 
the difference between Franks and Saxons was well marked in the 
German empire, these nations, each of which had its own language 
and laws, never objected to being called by the general name of 
Deutsche, or Teutones. At present there is no German tribe which 
has the particular name of Teutones, but although the Germans are 
composed of two very distinct nations, the High Germans and the 
Low Germans, they call themselves Deutsche, and their language 
Deutsch, though they do not understand each other. {Penny Cyclo- 
pedia, vol. xxiv., p. 262.) 

Treveri. A tribe claiming to be of German origin, and dwelling 
between the Mosa (Meuse) and the Rhine. Their chief towns were 
Augusta Treverorum, now Trier or Treves, the largest and most 
opulent city of Gaul, the residence of the emperors from Constan- 
tine the Great to Valens ; Noviomagus (Neumagen), Confluentes 
(Coblentz), Bingium, and others c. 28 

Triboci. (Written, also, Tribocci.) A German tribe, on the 
left bank of the Rhine, and between that river and the Medioma- 
trici and Lerici. Their chief city was Argentoratum, now Stras- 
bourg . . c. 28 

Tungri. A German tribe, the first that crossed the Rhine. 



246 GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 

They became, subsequently, a powerful people in Germania Inferior. 
They were probably the same with the Aduatici of Caesar . c. 2 

U. 

Ubii. A German tribe, the allies of Caesar against the Suevi, 
and subsequently transported by Agrippa (B.C. 38) to the left bank 
of the Rhine. Their capital, called at first Oppidum Ubiorum, was 
afterward named Colonia Agrippina or Agrippinensis, when a Ro- 
man colony had been established there, first by Agrippa, and subse- 
quently by Agrippina, the daughter of Germanicus and wife of the 
Emperor Claudius. It is now Cologne. The Ara Ubiorum must 
not be confounded with the Oppidum Ubiorum. The former was 
an altar, probably erected to Augustus, like that at Lugdunum {Suet.., 
Claud., 2). Not far from Bonn is a hill called Godesberg, and it is 
highly probable that this is the site of the Ara Ubiorum. That it 
was somewhere near Bonn is pretty certain. The name Godes- 
berg seems to indicate that the place was the seat of a religious 
worship of some kind . . . . . .. . c. 28 

Usipii. A German tribe, generally named in connection with the 
Tencteri. Indeed, these two tribes usually go together in both ge- 
ography and history. They frequently changed their settlements. 
When driven from their own possessions by the Catti, whom Caesar 
calls Suevi (B. G., iv., 1, 4), after wandering in Germany for three 
years, they came to the Rhine, and, having crossed it, seized upon 
the lands and dwellings of the Menapii, Eburones, and Condrusi, 
between the Rhine and Moselle. From this point they spread fur- 
ther into Gaul ; but having been put to flight by Caesar, after a great 
slaughter, the greater part of the remainder perished in attempting 
to cross the Rhine. A part of the cavalry, which had not been en- 
gaged in the battle, took refuge in the territories of the Sigambri. 
When the Sigambri removed to Gaul, the Usipii and Tencteri be- 
came masters of their possessions on the Lupia (Lippe). The 
Usipii at first dwelt on the east bank of the Rhine, from its eastern 
mouth to the Lippe, in the tract which the Chamavi and Tubantes 
occupied before them ; but they gradually moved southward. In 
the time of Claudius and Nero they dwelt between the Sieg and 
the Lahn, where they were still in the time of Tacitus. In the 
time of Ptolemy they inhabited the northern part of the Black For- 
est. The name of the Usipii disappears from history after the time 
of Agricola ; they became mixed up with the Alemanni. The 
Tencteri lived south of the Lippe, in the region opposite Coin and 
Bonn. At the time of the expeditions of Drusus and Tiberius, they 



GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 247 

had removed eastward, but returned after the defeat of Varus : 
and in the age of Tacitus, their possessions extended northward to 
the Lippe, where they bordered on the Bructeri, and southward to 
the Sieg. Their eastern boundary, according to Ptolemy, was 
Mount Abnoba, or the ridge which runs northward between the 
earldom of Mark and the duchy of Westphalia. (Cces., B. G., iv., 
1-18 ; Bio, xxxix., 47, 48 ; liv., 21, 32, 33.) 



Vandalii. A German tribe, who lived at first on the shores of 
the Baltic, between the Albis and Vistula, in Pomerania, and the 
west of Poland ; but being forced to evacuate their possessions in 
their wars with Aurelian and Probus, they first settled in Dacia and 
Sarmatia, then in Pannonia and Gallia, and in the year 406, together 
with the Alani, they migrated to Spain. Being afterward overpow- 
ered by the Goths, they took refuge in Africa, and were there sub- 
dued by Justinian in the year 534. 

VangiSnes. A German tribe, dwelling on the Rhine, to the 
east of the Treviri, and north of the Nemetes. Their capital was 
Borbetomagus, called afterward Augusta Vangionum, and now 
Worms c. 28 

Varini. A German tribe, placed by Ptolemy along the sea, from 
the mouth of the Trave to the Warne, which last doubtless took its 
name from them. They were afterward driven inland by Slavonian 
tribes, and united themselves with the Saxons. We find some 
tribes of the Varini in Thuringia, others on the banks of the Elbe, 
and others in the neighborhood of the Rhine, where they were sub- 
dued by the Franks. They also appear on the south of the Danube, 
for they served as auxiliaries under Narses in Italy. Ptolemy calls 
them $apodrjvoL c. 40 

Venedi. A tribe who lived on the eastern bank of the Vistula, 
round what is now the Gulf of Bantzic, and on the mountains called 
from them ra OveveSiKa 6pn, which separated them from the Got- 
ones, in Poland, Lithuania, and the eastern part of Prussia. They 
were afterward called Winidi, or Wendi. They belonged to the 
Slavonians, who, after the fifth century, spread over the east of 
Germany up to and beyond the Elbe, and whose posterity are still 
found in Livonia, Bohemia, Silesia, Moravia, Lusatia, Pomerania, 
Stiria, &c. A dialect of the Slavonic is still called the Wend lan- 
guage. Many suppose that the Veneti in Italy are a branch of the 
same people, who migrated southward, and that Vindelicia also 
took its name from them. 



S T E M M A 



THE FAMILY OF AUGUSTUS. 



As the relations of the members of the Augustan family are ex- 
ceedingly intricate, and a knowledge of them is essential for under- 
standing many parts of Tacitus, a stemma of the family is subjoin- 
ed, drawn up by Lipsius. 

C. Octavius, the father of Augustus, was married twice. By his 
first wife, Ancharia, he had Octavia the elder ; by his second wife, 
Atia (the daughter of Atius Balbus and Julia, the sister of Julius 
Caesar), he had Octavia the younger, and C. Octavius, afterward 
Augustus. It is doubtful from which of the daughters the follow- 
ing progeny springs. 



250 STEMMA OF THE FAMILY OF AUGUSTUS. 



I. Octavia was married twice, and had — 



a. By C. Mar- 
cellus, 



b. By M. An- 
tonius the 
Triumvir, 



' 1. M. Marcellus, m. (1) Pompeia, dr. of Sextus Pompeius, and (2) 
Julia, dr. of Augustus — had no progeny. Died in his 17th 
year, B.C. 23. 

2. Marcella, the elder, m. twice, and had — 

a. By M. Vipsanius C Children of names unknown {Suet., Aug., 
Agrippa, \ 63). 

" B 7 lu ^ s . Ant0 - ( L. Antonius Africa-} & Antonius Africa . 
mus Afncanus' nus {Annul, iv.. 1 (Annal xiv 

«nn of rt,* TH.S 44), father or un- f ^' ^wnot. f xiv., 
{ cleof J 4b > 



son of the Tri- 
umvir. 



3. Marcella, the younger. 



1. Antonia* the elder. 
By L. Domitius 
Ahenobarbus. 



2. Antonia the young- 
er. 
By Drusus, brother 
of Tiberius. 



1. Domitia, m. Crispus Passienus ? 

2. Domitia Lepida. 

x> at -xt i • 1 Valeria Messallina, 

• B f[-I al u mS m. Claudius, the 
BarbatusMes- > 



salla. 



emperor. (See 
J below.) 
b. By Ap. Junius ) N _ ? 
Silanus? jwone* 

3. Cn, Domitius, by ? N ™- Qctavia ^ 
Agrippma. } Poppa3a 

1. Germanicus, adopted by Tiberius. 

By of A S pina,dr -} s - M °- 

2. Livia, or Livilla. 

m. C. Csesar, and afterward Drusus, son 
of Tiberius, is betrothed to Sejanus 
{Annal., iv., 40). 

'1. Drusus. 



3. Claudius. 
a. By Plautia Ur- 
gulanilla. 



b. By ^Elia Pe % 
tina. » 



c. By Valeria Mes- 
sallina. 



Betrothed to dr. 
of Sejanus {An- 
nal., iii., 29. Su- 
et., Claud., 27). 
2. Claudia. 
' Antonia. 

m. Pompeius M., 
killed by Claudius, 
and Faustus Sulla. 
'1. Octavia. 

Betrothed to L. 
Silvanus, mar. 
Nero, the em- 
peror. 
2. Claudius Britan- 



* Tacitus makes Antonia the younger wife of Domitius {Annal., iv., 41 ; xii., 64). 



STEMMA OF THE FAMILY OF AUGUSTUS. 



251 



II. Augustus had no children by his other wives ; by Scribonia, 
daughter of L. Scribonius Libo, he had one daughter, Julia. Ju- 
lia was married three times. 



a. By M. Marcellus, son of C. Marcellus and Octavia — had no progeny. 

C 1. Cuius Casar, adopted by Augustus, m. Livia, sister of Gernian- 
icus, died A.D. 4. 
2. Lucius Cczsar, adopted by Augustus, betrothed to ^Emilia Le- 
pida, died A.D. 2. 



b. By M. Vipsa- 
nius Agrippa. 



3. Julia. 

By L. iEmilius 
Paulus, son of 
the Censor. 



4. Agrippina. 
By Germanicus. 



1. M. Mmilius Lepidus, m. Drusilla, dr. of 
Germanicus. 

2. jEmilia Lepida. 

a. Betrothed to Claudius. 

b. By Ap. Junius (1. L. Silanus. 
Silanus. Betrothed to Octavia, 

dr. of Claudius. 
{ 2. M. Silanus. 

Proconsul of Asia. 
I 3. Junia Calvin a. 
{ m. son of Vitellius. 

c. By Drusus, son K T 
ofGermanicus?^ 0116 - 

1. Nero, m. Julia, dr. of Drusus, son of Tibe- 
rius (Annal., vi., 27). 

2. Drusus, m. ^Emilia Lepida (Annal., vi., 
40). 

3. Caius Caligula. 
J 4. Agrippina, 

Nero. 



By Cn. Domitius. 

. Drusilla, m. L. Cassius and M. Mmilius 
Lepidus. 
6. Livia, or Livilla, m. M. Vinicius and Outfie- 
ld tilius Varus ? 
5. Agrippa Postumus, adopted by Augustus, put to death by Ti- 
berius, A.D. 14. 
By Tiberius, had none. 



252 



STEMMA OF THE FAMILY OF AUGUSTUS. 



III. Augustus, after divorcing his former wife, Scribonia, married 
Livia Drusilla, by whom he had no children. Livia, however, 
had been previously married to Tiberius Claudius Nero, by whom 
she had two sons, Tiberius, afterward emperor, and Drusus, who 
was born three months after her marriage with Augustus. 

1. Tiberius Nero, adopted by Augustus. 
a. By Vipsania Agrlp- f 

pina, gr. dr. of Atti- Drusus, "J 1. Ti. Gemellus, killed by Caligula 

eus. ^ By Livia, sister I (Suet., Cat, 25). 

ot'Germani- (2. — Gemellus (Ann., ii., 84 ; iv., 15). 



b. By Julia, dr. of 
Augustus. 

2. Drusus. 



I None. 



By Antonia the ? ~ a , '^ 

younger. j See above. 



J 3. Julia, 
a. By 



Nero, 1 
son of Ger- \ None, 
manicus. ) 
JtJy Rubel- 1 Rubellius 
lius Blan- \Plautus 
dus (Ann., [ (Annal, xvi, 
vi., 27;. J 10). 



THE END. 



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